Lubricant-impregnated surfaces for electrochemical applications, and devices and systems using the same

ABSTRACT

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to an electrochemical device having a liquid lubricant impregnated surface. At least a portion of the interior surface of the electrochemical device includes a portion that includes a plurality of solid features disposed therein. The plurality of solid features define a plurality of regions therebetween. A lubricant is disposed in the plurality of regions which retain the liquid lubricant in the plurality of regions during operation of the device. An electroactive phase comes in contact with at least the portion of the interior surface. The liquid lubricant impregnated surface introduces a slip at the surface when the electroactive phase flows along the surface. The electroactive phase may be a yield stress fluid.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to and the benefit of, and incorporatesherein by reference in its entirety, U.S. Provisional Patent ApplicationNo. 62/014,207, filed Jun. 19, 2014.

GOVERNMENT LICENSE RIGHTS

This invention was made with government support under U.S. Department ofEnergy Grant No. DOE-FOA-0000559, Energy Innovation Hub—Batteries andEnergy Storage, and Subcontract No. 3F-31144, issued under DOE PrimeContract No. DE-AC02-06CH11357 between the United States Government andUChicago Argonne, LLC representing Argonne National Laboratory. Thegovernment has certain rights in the invention.

FIELD OF INVENTION

This invention relates generally to electrochemical applications,devices, and systems. More particularly, in some embodiments, theinvention relates to articles and methods that promote flow (e.g., of anelectroactive phase) in electrochemical systems (e.g., batteries, fuelcells, capacitors) by encapsulating or impregnating a secondary liquidin surface textures of the electrochemical systems.

BACKGROUND

Electrochemical energy storage devices include primary (disposable) andsecondary (rechargeable) batteries of almost any type, including but notlimited to alkali ion and alkaline earth ion batteries and flowbatteries as described in U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. Nos.61/912,215, filed on Dec. 5, 2013, 61/911,101, filed on Dec. 3, 2013,61/903,574 filed on Nov. 13, 2013, 61/903,739 filed on Nov. 13, 2013,61/892,588, filed on Oct. 18, 2013, 61/831,321, U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 14/172,648, filed on Dec. 4, 2014, Ser. No. 13/083,167, filedon Apr. 8, 2011, Ser. No. 12/970,753, filed on Dec. 16, 2010, Ser. No.13/404,735 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,582,807), filed on Feb. 24, 2012, andU.S. Pat. No. 7,338,734, filed on Dec. 23, 2002, U.S. Pat. No.8,722,227, filed on Aug. 26, 2013, U.S. Pat. No. 8,148,013, filed onSep. 17, 2007, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in itsentirety.

Fuel cells include any fuel cell type in which at least one of the fuelsor reactants is a condensed phase, including instances where the fuel isliquid or semi-solid, and where the fuel cell uses a physical membraneor is “membraneless” with electronic isolation of the electroactivereactants being achieved through controlled flow of one or more fluidphases.

A battery stores electrochemical energy by separating two half cells(e.g., a conductive electrode and surrounding conductive electrolytes)with different electro-chemical potential. Each half-cell has anelectromotive force, determined by its ability to drive electric currentfrom the interior to the exterior of the cell. A difference inelectrochemical potentials and/or electromotive forces generates anelectric current when a conductive material connects the electrodes.

Rechargeable batteries can be constructed using static negativeelectrode/electrolyte and positive electrode/electrolyte media.Rechargeable batteries can be restored (e.g., recharged) by applyingreverse current and/or voltage. Lead-acid batteries used in vehicles andlithium ion batteries for portable electronics are some examples ofrechargeable batteries. In rechargeable batteries, the electrode activematerials generally need to be able to accept (e.g., to be charged) andprovide (e.g., to discharge) ions.

A flow battery is a rechargeable battery that has soluble metal ions inliquid solutions. The ability of a flow battery to be recharged isgenerally provided by oxidation and reduction of two flowing electrolyteliquids separated by a membrane. A flow battery typically includesreservoirs for storing electrolytes, a membrane for ion exchange, andpumps for controlling flow of the electrolytes.

Redox flow batteries, also referred to as flow cells, redox batteries,or reversible fuel cells are energy storage devices in which thepositive and negative electrode reactants are soluble metal ions inliquid solution that are oxidized or reduced during the operation of thecell. Using two reversible redox couples, liquid state redox reactionsare carried out at the positive and negative electrodes. A redox flowcell typically has a power-generating assembly comprising at least anionically transporting membrane separating the positive and negativeelectrode reactants (also called catholyte and anolyte respectively),and positive and negative current collectors (also called electrodes)which facilitate the transfer of electrons to the external circuit butdo not participate in the redox reaction (i.e., the current collectormaterials themselves do not undergo Faradaic activity). Redox flowbatteries have been discussed, for example, by C. Ponce de Leon, A.Frias-Ferrer, J. Gonzalez-Garcia, D. A. Szantos and F. C. Walsh, “RedoxFlow Batteries for Energy Conversion,” J. Power Sources, 160, 716(2006), M. Bartolozzi, “Development of Redox Flow Batteries: AHistorical Bibliography,” J. Power Sources, 27, 219 (1989), and by M.Skyllas-Kazacos and F. Grossmith, “Efficient Vanadium Redox Flow Cell,”Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 134, 2950 (1987).

Some batteries (e.g., flow batteries) have significant pumping lossesdue to a variety of factors, including a combination of high flowelectrode viscosity, high flow velocity during operation, and/or narrowchannel cross-sectional dimensions and/or long channel length. Some flowbatteries utilize flow electrodes with non-Newtonian rheology (e.g.,yield-stress fluids), for example, the high energy density flowelectrodes described in U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. Nos.61/892,588, filed on Oct. 18, 2013, 61/903,574, filed on Nov. 13, 2013,61/903,739, filed on Nov. 13, 2013, U.S. patent application Ser. No.12/970,753, filed on Dec. 16, 2010, U.S. Pat. No. 8,722,227, filed onAug. 26, 2013, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in itsentirety and publications M. Duduta, B. Y. Ho, V. C. Wood, P.Limthongkul, V. E. Brunini, W. C. Carter, Y.-M. Chiang, “Semi-SolidLithium Rechargeable Flow Battery,” Adv. Energy Mater., 1[4] 511-516(2011) (DOI: 10.1002/aenm.201100152) and F. Y. Fan, W. H. Woodford, Z.Li, N. Baram. K. C. Smith, A. Helal, G. H. McKinley, W. C. Carter, Y.-M.Chiang, “Polysulfide Flow Batteries Enabled by Percolating NanoscaleConductor Networks,” Nano Letters, 5 Mar. 2014, DOI: 10.1021/n1500740t,the disclosure of each of these publications being incorporated hereinby reference in its entirety.

In some instances, the flow electrodes have a continuous percolatingnetwork of an electronic conductor phase that imparts electronicconductivity to the flow electrodes. The rheology of the flow electrodesmay be non-Newtonian by possessing, for example, shear-thinningbehavior, or Bingham plastic or Hershel-Bulkley rheology wherein thereis a measurable yield stress to the fluid followed by Newtonian ornon-Newtonian viscosity after the yields stress is overcome. High energydensity fluid electrodes for high energy density flow batteriestypically have non-Newtonian rheology, especially when formulated assuspensions which increase electrical conductivity, energy density, orboth. The rheology of the flow electrodes can result in significantpumping energy losses and/or decreases in electrochemical energyefficiency (e.g., in a flow battery).

Thus, there is a need for improved articles and methods for promotingflow of electroactive phases of electrochemical devices. For example,there is a need for robust surfaces that promote electrode flow inbatteries.

SUMMARY OF INVENTION

Presented herein are systems and methods for promoting, manipulating,and controlling the flow of electroactive phases of electrochemicaldevices by providing at least one surface (or a portion thereof) thatincludes a liquid lubricant impregnated within its surface features. Forexample, the at least one surface is a non-wetting surface that includesa liquid impregnated within a matrix of micro and/or nano-engineeredfeatures on the surface, or a liquid filling pores or other wells on thesurface. In some embodiments, the liquid fills the spaces between/withinthe surface features, and the liquid is held between/within the surfacefeatures. In some implementations, the liquid stably is heldbetween/within the surface feature regardless of orientation of theelectrochemical device. The at least one liquid-lubricant impregnatedsurface may be resistant to impalement (e.g., by the flowing phase,e.g., electroactive phase). The surface may be configured to reduceviscous drag on the surface. The surface may also serve to minimizeaccumulation of impinging/flowing phases (e.g., electroactive phase) insome implementations.

Through proper selection of the impregnating liquid, theliquid-impregnated surfaces described herein are easily customizable tosuit a desired application. In some embodiments, an existing article isretrofitted to include the at least one surface described herein.

One aspect of the invention relates to an electrochemical device thatincludes an interior surface, at least a first portion of which includesa plurality of solid features disposed thereon, the plurality of solidfeatures defining a plurality of regions therebetween, and a liquidlubricant disposed in the plurality of regions, the plurality of solidfeatures retaining the liquid lubricant in the plurality of regionsduring operation of the device, thereby providing a liquid lubricantimpregnated surface. The electrochemical device also includes anelectroactive phase in contact with at least the first portion of theinterior surface, wherein the liquid lubricant impregnated surfaceintroduces a slip at the surface (e.g., where a ratio of slip velocityagainst mean velocity (u_(w)/ū) is greater than 0.9) when theelectroactive phase flows along the surface (e.g., thereby providing lowshear rate and high slip ratio at the surface and promoting plug flow ofthe electroactive phase within the device). In some embodiments, a ratioof slip velocity against mean velocity (u_(w)/ū) is greater than 0.9. Insome embodiments, a ratio of slip velocity against mean velocity(u_(w)/ū) is greater than 0.85. In some embodiments, a ratio of slipvelocity against mean velocity (u_(w)/ū) is greater than 0.8. In someembodiments, a ratio of slip velocity against mean velocity (u_(w)/ū) isgreater than 0.75.

In some embodiments, the electroactive phase is a non-Newtonian fluid.In some embodiments, the electroactive phase is a yield-stress fluid.The electrochemical device of claim 3, wherein the electroactive phasehas a yield-stress between 1 Pa and 2 kPa (e.g., between 1 Pa and 5 Pa,between 1 Pa and 20 Pa, between 5 Pa and 40 Pa, between 25 Pa and 100Pa, between 50 Pa and 250 Pa, between 150 Pa and 350 Pa, between 250 Paand 500 Pa, between 400 Pa and 600 Pa, between 500 Pa and 800 Pa,between 750 Pa and 1 kPa, between 900 Pa and 1.25 kPa, between 1 kPa and1.5 kPa, between 1.25 kPa and 1.75 kPa, between 1.5 kPa and 2 kPa).

In some embodiments, the electroactive phase flows along the firstportion of the interior surface such that the first portion issubstantially free from residue left by the electroactive phase alongits path of flow (e.g., the electroactive phase does not smudge or smearon the surface, e.g., less than 10%, less than 5%, or less than 1% ofthe electroactive surface is left on the surface).

In some embodiments, the first portion enables flowing of theelectroactive phase solely due to gravity (e.g., such that no otherforce is required for the electroactive phase to flow along the surface;e.g., where tilting the electroactive device at an angle enables theelectroactive phase to flow along the surface, without requiringapplication of any other force).

In some embodiments, the electroactive phase includes at least onesolvent and at least one electrolyte. In some embodiments, theelectrolyte is a Lithium-containing salt (e.g., in organic solvent orcombination of organic solvents or in aqueous-based solvent orcombination of solvents). In some embodiments, the Lithium-containingsalt is selected from the group consisting of LiPF₆, LiBF₄, LiTFSI,LiFSI, LiClO₄, LiAlCl₄, and LiGaCl₄ in organic solvent or combination ofsolvents or in aqueous-based solvent or combination of solvents. In someembodiments, the electrolyte is selected from the group consisting ofiron/chromium, bromine/polysulfide, vanadium, zinc/bromine, lithiumpolysulfide, vanadium,tris(bipyridine)nickel(II)tetrafluoroborate/tris(bipyridine)iron(II)tetrafluoroborate(Ni(Bpy)₃(BF₄)₂/Fe(BPy)₃(BF₄)₂), tris(bipyridine)ruthenium(II)((Ru(bpy)₃]²⁺), and zinc/cerium.

In some embodiments, the solvent is selected from the list consisting ofwater, alkyl carbonates (e.g., ethylene carbonate, diethyl carbonate,dimethyl carbonate, propylene carbonate), alkyl phosphonates,phosphites, acetonitrile, propylene carbonate, glyme, diglyme, triglyme,tetraglyme, polyglyme, dioxolane (1,3-dioxolane), dimethyl sulfoxide(DMSO), dichloromethane, ethylene carbonate, tetrahydrafuran (THF),methane sulfonic acid, dimethyl ether (DEM), tetraethylene glycoldimethyl ether (TEG-DME) and dimethoxyethane, and any combination orderivative thereof.

In some embodiments, the electroactive phase also includesflame-retardant additives (e.g., trimethlyphosphate (TMP)) and/or iontransport enhancer(s). In some embodiments, the electroactive phaseincludes a flame retardant additive or a combination of flame retardantadditives. In some embodiments, the electroactive phase includes an iontransport enhancer or a combination of ion transport enhancers.

In some embodiments, the electroactive phase includes at least oneconductive additive selected from the group consisting of: metalcarbides, metal nitrides, carbon black, graphitic carbon powder, carbonfibers, carbon microfibers, vapor-grown carbon fibers (VGCF),fullerenes, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWNTs),single wall carbon nanotubes (SWNTs), graphene sheets, and materialscomprising fullerenic fragments that are not predominantly a closedshell or tube of the graphene sheet, and any combination or mixturethereof. In some embodiments, the conductive additive is carbon black.In some embodiments, the carbon black is present in the electroactivephase in an amount of from between 0.25 vol % to 3 vol % (e.g., between0.25 vol % to 0.5 vol %, 0.3 vol % to 0.6 vol %, 0.5 vol % to 0.8 vol %,0.75 vol % to 1 vol %, 0.85 vol % to 1.25 vol %, 1 vol % to 1.5 vol %;1.25 vol % to 1.75 vol %, 1.5 vol % to 2 vol %; 1.75 vol % to 2.25 vol%, 2 vol % to 2.5 vol %, 2.25 vol % to 2.75 vol %, 2.5 vol % to 3 vol%). In some embodiments, the electroactive phase flows solely due togravity when the carbon black is present in the electroactive phase inan amount greater than 0.25 vol % (e.g., greater than 0.5 vol %, greaterthan 1 vol %, greater than 2 vol %, greater than 2.5 vol %, between 0.25vol % to 3 vol %).

In some embodiments, the liquid lubricant impregnated surface promotesplug flow, wherein a ratio of slip velocity against mean velocity(u_(w)/ū) is greater than 0.9.

In some embodiments, the electrochemical device is designed such that atleast one of the conditions or any combination of conditions (a) through(e) is satisfied: (a) wherein the solid features have an averagedimension in a range of up to 200 microns (e.g., 1-200 microns, 1-10microns, 5-15 microns, 10-50 microns, 25-75 microns, 50-100 microns,75-125 microns, 100-150 microns, 125-175 microns, 150-200 microns, 1nm-1 micron, 1-10 nm, 5-20 nm, 15-50 nm, 25-75 nm, 50-100 nm, 75-150 nm,100-300 nm, 250-500 nm, 350-700 nm, 650-800 nm, 750-950 nm); (b) whereinthe solid features comprise particles; (c) wherein a ratio of an exposedsurface area of the plurality of solid features to an exposed surfacearea of the liquid lubricant contained in the plurality of regions isless than 0.5 (e.g., less than 0.4, less than 0.3, less than 0.2, lessthan 0.1); (d) wherein the solid features comprise particles and whereinan average spacing between adjacent particles or clusters of particlesis in a range of up to 200 microns (e.g., 1-200 microns, 1-10 microns,5-15 microns, 10-50 microns, 25-75 microns, 50-100 microns, 75-125microns, 100-150 microns, 125-175 microns, 150-200 microns, 1 nm-1micron, 1-10 nm, 5-20 nm, 15-50 nm, 25-75 nm, 50-100 nm, 75-150 nm,100-300 nm, 250-500 nm, 350-700 nm, 650-800 nm, 750-950 nm); (e) whereinthe interior surface (without the plurality of solid features and theliquid lubricant) has a first roll-off angle and wherein the pluralityof solid features and the liquid lubricant collectively define aliquid-impregnated surface, the liquid-impregnated surface having asecond roll-off angle, the second roll-off angle being less than thefirst roll-off angle.

In some embodiments, a ratio of an exposed surface area of the pluralityof solid features to an exposed surface area of the liquid contained inthe plurality of regions is less than 0.3. In some embodiments, a ratioof an exposed surface area of the plurality of solid features to anexposed surface area of the liquid contained in the plurality of regionsgreater than 0 and less than 0.2. In some embodiments, the secondroll-off angle is less than 2°.

In some embodiments, the electrochemical device is a member selectedfrom the group consisting of: a battery (e.g., flow battery, aqueousbattery, non-aqueous battery, metal-air battery), a fuel cell (e.g.,gravity-induced flow cell), and a capacitor (e.g., electrolyticcapacitor, flow capacitor).

In some embodiments, the first portion passively (e.g., the effect is aproperty of the surface and does not require, e.g., application ofadditional forces to be achieved) promotes at least one effect selectedfrom the list consisting of: (i) increases nucleation of insolublematerials (e.g., of reacting material, e.g., insoluble lithium sulfidespecies) formed during operation of the electrochemical device, (ii)increases growth of insoluble materials (e.g., of reacting material,e.g., insoluble lithium sulfide species) formed during operation of theelectrochemical device, (iii) increases precipitation of insolublematerials (e.g., of reacting material, e.g., insoluble lithium sulfidespecies) formed during operation of the electrochemical device, (iv)increases segregation of insoluble materials (e.g., of reactingmaterial, e.g., insoluble lithium sulfide species) formed duringoperation of the electrochemical device at desired locations (e.g., atthe electroactive region) on the internal surface of the electrochemicaldevice.

In some embodiments, the first portion passively promotes at least oneeffect selected from the list consisting of: (i) inhibits nucleation(e.g., of scale or of reacting material, e.g., insoluble lithium sulfidespecies as discussed herein), (ii) decreases growth (e.g., of scale orreacting material, e.g., insoluble lithium sulfide species as discussedherein), (iii) inhibits precipitation (e.g., of reacting material, e.g.,insoluble lithium sulfide species as discussed herein), (iv) decreasessegregation (e.g., of scale or of reacting material, e.g., insolublelithium sulfide species as discussed herein) at undesired locations(e.g., away from the electroactive region (because, e.g., if undesirednucleation takes place away from the electroactive region, batterycapacity may be lost)) on the internal surface of the electrochemicaldevice of insoluble materials formed during operation of theelectrochemical device.

In some embodiments, the first portion passively extends an operatingtemperature range of the electrochemical device (e.g., theelectrochemical device may be operated at lower temperatures, e.g.,wherein the liquid-lubricant impregnated surface inhibitscrystallization of electroactive phase components). In some embodiments,the electroactive device may be successfully operated at temperatureslower than the crystallization temperature of the electroactive phasecomponents. In some embodiments, the electroactive phase flows along theliquid lubricant impregnated surface at temperatures below thecrystallization temperature of the electroactive phase components. Insome embodiments, the electroactive phase flows along the liquidlubricant impregnated surface at temperatures below the crystallizationtemperature of the electroactive phase components without leaving aresidue along its path of flow (or, e.g., where the path of flow isessentially free from electroactive phase residue).

In some embodiments, a second portion (e.g., other than the firstportion) of the internal surface does not comprise the plurality ofsolid features disposed thereon (for example, where a portion of theinternal surface includes a liquid lubricant impregnated surface and aportion of the internal surface does not include a liquid lubricantimpregnated surface). The first and second portions may be designed orpatterned in any desired patterns depending on desired electrochemicaldevice performance specifications. For example, in some embodiments, thepath of flow of the electroactive phase includes regions that includeliquid lubricant impregnated surfaces and regions that do not includeliquid lubricant impregnated surface.

In some embodiments, the internal surface includes one or more firstportions comprising the plurality of solid features disposed thereon andone or more second portions not comprising the plurality of solidfeatures disposed thereon.

In some embodiments, the first portion is electronically conductive. Insome embodiments, the first portion is not electronically conductive. Insome embodiments, the second portion is electronically conductive. Insome embodiments, the second portion is not electronically conductive.

In some embodiments, the plurality of solid features include anelectronically conductive material (e.g., nanoparticles (ormicroparticles or combination of nanoparticles and microparticles)suspended in a percolating network of carbon black (or other conductiveadditive) in TEG-DME (or another suitable solvent)) and/or wherein theliquid lubricant comprises an electronically conductive suspension orpolymer solution (e.g., a percolating network of carbon black (oranother conductive additive) in a vacuum pump oil (e.g., KRYTOX® 1506)).

In some embodiments, the first portion is ionically conductive. In someembodiments, the plurality of solid features include an ion-conductingglass or polymer. In some embodiments, the plurality of solid featuresinclude an ion-conducting glass or polymer and the liquid lubricantincludes an ionically conductive liquid (e.g., an electrolyte).

In some embodiments, the liquid lubricant is selected such that it iselectrochemically stable (e.g., where an amount of side reactions due tothe liquid lubricant is less than 5%, less than 4%, less than 3%, lessthan 2%, less than 1%, less than 0.5%, less than 0.1% of totalelectrochemical reactions). Some embodiments discussed herein relate tomethods of selecting appropriate liquid lubricants to be used inelectrochemical devices discussed herein, wherein one of the criteriafor selecting the liquid lubricant is its electrochemical stability(e.g., such that an amount of side reactions due to the liquid lubricantis less than 5%, less than 4%, less than 3%, less than 2%, less than 1%,less than 0.5%, less than 0.1% of the total electrochemical reactions).

In some embodiments, the liquid lubricant is thermodynamically stable(e.g., wherein when surface tension of the liquid lubricant issubtracted from surface tension of an electrolyte solvent, the resultingvalue is greater than zero).

In some embodiments, the liquid lubricant is immiscible or partiallymiscible (e.g., less than 5%, less than 4%, less than 3%, less than 2%,less than 1%, less than 0.5%, less than 0.1% miscibility) with theelectroactive phase.

In some embodiments, the plurality of solid features include at leastone material selected from the group consisting of: hydrocarbons, (e.g.,alkanes, and fluoropolymers (e.g., polytetrafluoroethylene,trichloro(1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorooctyl)silane (TCS),octadecyltrichlorosilane (OTS),heptadecafluoro-1,1,2,2-tetrahydrodecyltrichlorosilane, fluoroPOSS)),ceramics (e.g., titanium carbide, titanium nitride, chromium nitride,boron nitride, chromium carbide, molybdenum carbide, titaniumcarbonitride, electroless nickel, zirconium nitride, fluorinated silicondioxide, titanium dioxide, tantalum oxide, tantalum nitride,diamond-like carbon, fluorinated diamond-like carbon, and/orcombinations thereof. Intermetallic compounds may include, for example,nickel aluminide, titanium aluminide, and/or combinations thereof),polymeric materials (e.g., polytetrafluoroethylene, fluoroacrylate,fluorourethane, fluorosilicone, fluorosilane, modified carbonate,chlorosilanes, silicone, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), and/or combinationthereof), fluorinated materials, intermetallic compounds, compositematerials, and any combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the liquid lubricant is selected from the listconsisting of oil-based lubricants (e.g., silicone oils, e.g., 10 cStsilicone oil, 1000 cSt silicone oil); ionic liquids (e.g., BMI-IM, e.g.,having ionic conductivity between 1 mS/cm to 10 mS/cm); hexadecane,vacuum pump oils (e.g., perfluorinated vacuum oils), fluorocarbons(e.g., perfluoro-tripentylamine), shear-thinning fluids,shear-thickening fluids, liquid polymers, dissolved polymers,viscoelastic fluids, liquid fluoroPOSS, hydrocarbon liquids,fluorocarbon liquids, and/or electronically conducting liquids.

In some embodiments, the electroactive device includes a first volumeincluding the electroactive phase (e.g., flow electrode, e.g., lithiumpolysulfide suspension); a second volume separated from the first volumeby a separator (e.g., membrane, e.g. ion-permeable membrane), whereinthe separator spatially separates a positive current collector and anegative current collector. In some embodiments, the separator is coatedwith or includes a liquid-lubricant impregnated surface.

Another aspect of the present invention relates to an electrochemicaldevice including a positive electrode current collector; a negativeelectrode current collector; and an ion-permeable membrane separatingthe positive current collector and the negative current collector; apositive electrode disposed between the positive electrode currentcollector and the ion-permeable membrane; the positive electrode currentcollector and the ion-permeable membrane defining a positiveelectroactive zone accommodating the positive electrode; and a negativeelectrode disposed between the negative electrode current collector andthe ion-permeable membrane; the negative electrode current collector andthe ion-permeable membrane defining a negative electroactive zoneaccommodating the negative electrode, wherein at least a portion of thepositive electrode current collector surface that comes into contactwith the positive electrode and/or at least a portion of the negativeelectrode current collector surface that comes into contact with thenegative electrode comprises a plurality of solid features disposedthereon, the plurality of solid features defining a plurality of regionstherebetween, and a liquid lubricant disposed in the plurality ofregions, the plurality of solid features retaining the liquid lubricantin the plurality of regions during operation of the device, therebyproviding a liquid lubricant impregnated surface, wherein the liquidlubricant impregnated surface introduces a slip at the surface (e.g.,where a ratio of slip velocity against mean velocity (u_(w)/ū) isgreater than 0.9) when the positive electrode or the negative electrodeflows along the surface and promoting plug flow of the positiveelectrode or the negative electrode along the surface.

In some embodiments, the electroactive device includes a positiveelectrode storage tank and a negative electrode storage tank, wherein atleast a portion of an internal surface of the positive electrode storagetank and/or the negative electrode storage tank includes or is coatedwith a liquid lubricant impregnated surface. In some embodiments, theelectroactive device includes a positive electrode storage tank and anegative electrode storage tank, wherein the positive electrode storagetank and the negative electrode storage tank are connected to theelectroactive zone via piping, wherein at least a portion of an internalsurface of the piping includes or is coated with a liquid lubricantimpregnated surface.

In some embodiments, the ion-permeable membrane includes or is coatedwith a liquid-lubricant impregnated surface.

Some embodiments described herein relate to methods of manufacturingelectrochemical devices discussed herein. Some embodiments describedherein relate to methods of retrofitting electrochemical devices withliquid lubricant impregnated surfaces discussed herein. Some embodimentsdescribed herein relate to improving slip of electroactive phasematerials in electroactive devices by introducing a lubricantimpregnated surface on surfaces of the electroactive devices that comeinto contact with electroactive phase materials.

Elements of embodiments discussed with respect to a given aspect of theinvention may be used in various embodiments of another aspect of theinvention. For example, it is contemplated that features of dependentclaims depending from one independent claim can be used in apparatusand/or methods of any of the other independent claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING

The foregoing and other objects, aspects, features, and advantages ofthe present disclosure will become more apparent and better understoodby referring to the following description taken in conjunction with theaccompanying drawings, in which:

FIG. 1A is a schematic cross-sectional view of a liquid in contact witha liquid-impregnated surface, in accordance with certain embodiments ofthe invention.

FIG. 1B is a schematic cross-sectional view of a droplet resting on aliquid-impregnated surface, in accordance with certain embodiments ofthe invention.

FIG. 1C illustrates schematics of wetting configurations outside andunderneath a drop. The total interface energies per unit area arecalculated for each configuration by summing the individual interfacialenergy contributions. Equivalent requirements for stability of eachconfiguration are also shown in FIG. 1C.

FIGS. 1D-1F illustrate schematics of electrolyte flow between flow cellwalls, in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 1D depicts macroscopic motion of an electrolyte between walls of aflow battery, in accordance with certain embodiments of the presentinvention.

FIG. 1E depicts an electrolyte moving on a regular (non-LIS) surface. Asshown in FIG. 1E, the advancing contact line pins on asperities andresults in a stick-slip motion of the electrolyte on the non-LISsurface.

FIG. 1F depicts an electrolyte moving on a LIS surface. As shown in FIG.1F, the advancing contact line moves freely along the LIS surface withno stick-slip motion, in accordance with certain embodiments of thepresent invention.

FIG. 2 is a plot showing exemplary electrochemical impedancespectroscopy as a function of carbon black (Ketjenblack, KB) loading, inaccordance with certain embodiments of the present invention.

FIGS. 3A and 3B illustrate a concept of a gravity-induced flow battery,in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention. In thisexample, the lithium polysulfide suspension (cathode) 302 can be loadedinto half of the flow channel of the battery 300. By tilting the device(battery) 300 at a sufficient angle α, as shown in FIG. 3B, the Lithiumpolysulfide suspension 302 flows along the interior surface of thebattery 300 due to gravitational force. Discharging and charging can becarried out in the electro-active region, e.g., between the currentcollectors 304.

FIG. 4 illustrates the behavior of droplets of an exemplary flowelectrode (cathode) on different surfaces, at different tilting anglesa, at different time periods (α=40° on a TEFLON® (apolytetrafluoroethylene) surface in the left portion of FIG. 4; α=70° onTEFLON® surface in the middle portion of FIG. 4; and α=40° on a LIS inthe right portion of FIG. 4), in accordance with certain embodiments ofthe present invention.

FIG. 5 illustrates schematics of velocity profiles without boundary slip(left side) and with slip (right side), in accordance with certainembodiments of the present invention. As shown, for example, in FIG. 5,a LIS introduces slip boundary conditions, which results in significantchanges in the velocity profile.

FIGS. 6A-6F show cyclic voltogramms (current density at the workingelectrode (y-axis) versus applied voltage (x-axis)) for varioussurfaces, in accordance with certain embodiments of the presentinvention. FIG. 6A is a cyclic voltogramm for a surface that is notimpregnated with any lubricant, and FIGS. 6B-6F are cyclic voltogrammsfor surfaces impregnated with various different lubricants, asdesignated in FIGS. 6B-6F. FIGS. 6B-6F illustrate cyclic voltammetry(CV) of lubricants and electroactive phases (TEG-DME (tetraethyleneglycol dimethyl ether), 0.5M LiTFSi (Lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl) imide), 1 wt % LiNO₃ (Lithium Nitrate)) to probe theelectrochemistry of the mixture. The tests were performed with aSwagelok cell configuration in a horizontal manner. Arrows in FIGS.6D-6F indicate that reactions occurred during the CV test on thestability of lubrications, showing the lubricant is notelectrochemically stable at the tested voltages.

FIG. 7 shows CV of lubricants, TEG-DME (solvent) and electrolyte(TEG-DME, 0.5M LiTFSi, 1 wt % LiNO₃) to probe electrochemical propertiesof the mixture, in accordance with certain embodiments of the presentinvention. The tests were performed based on a Swagelok cellconfiguration in a horizontal manner. No carbon felt was included unlessotherwise stated. As shown in FIG. 7, 10 cSt silicone oil wasexperimentally found to be the least electrochemically active lubricant.

FIG. 8 depicts CV of lubricants, TEG-DME (solvent) and electrolyte(TEG-DME, 0.5M LiTFSi, 1 wt % LiNO₃) to probe electrochemical propertiesof the pure lubricant, in accordance with certain embodiments of thepresent invention. The tests were performed based on a Swagelok cellconfiguration in a horizontal manner. No carbon felt was used unlessotherwise stated.

FIGS. 9A-9E show images of silicone oil droplets on certain surfaces, inaccordance with certain embodiments of the present invention. Thesurfaces in FIGS. 9A-9C were exposed to air while the surfaces in FIGS.9D-9F were immersed in TEG-DME. Surfaces in FIGS. 9A and 9D are madefrom polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) functionalized withn-octadecyltrichlorosilane (OTS). Surfaces in FIGS. 9B and 9E are madefrom un-modified PDMS. Surface in FIG. 9C is PDMS functionalized withtrichloro(1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorooctyl)silane (FOTS). All surfaces exceptthe one shown in FIG. 9A are non-wetting and prevent silicone oil fromspreading.

FIG. 10 is a cross-sectional illustration of a redox flow battery, inaccordance with certain embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 11 is a schematic illustration of an exemplary redox flow cell fora lithium battery system, in accordance with certain embodiments of thepresent invention.

FIG. 12 is a critical displacement profile map for the flow of aBingham-plastic with wall slip, in accordance with certain embodimentsof the present invention.

FIG. 13 is a schematic illustration of an exemplary aqueous ornon-aqueous battery, in accordance with certain embodiments of thepresent invention.

FIG. 14 is a schematic illustration of an exemplary metal-air battery,in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 15 is a schematic illustration of an exemplary fuel cell, inaccordance with certain embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 16 is a schematic illustration of an exemplary electrolyticcapacitor, in accordance with certain embodiments of the presentinvention.

FIG. 17 is a schematic illustration of an exemplary flow capacitor, inaccordance with certain embodiments of the present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

In order for the present disclosure to be more readily understood,certain terms are first defined below. Additional definitions for thefollowing terms and other terms are set forth throughout thespecification.

In this application, the use of “or” means “and/or” unless statedotherwise. As used in this application, the term “comprise” andvariations of the term, such as “comprising” and “comprises,” are notintended to exclude other additives, components, integers or steps. Asused in this application, the terms “about” and “approximately” are usedas equivalents. Any numerals used in this application with or withoutabout/approximately are meant to cover any normal fluctuationsappreciated by one of ordinary skill in the relevant art.

As used herein, the term “approximately” or “about,” as applied to oneor more values of interest, refers to a value that is similar to astated reference value. In certain embodiments, the term “approximately”or “about” refers to a range of values that fall within 25%, 20%, 19%,18%, 17%, 16%, 15%, 14%, 13%, 12%, 11%, 10%, 9%, 8%, 7%, 6%, 5%, 4%, 3%,2%, 1%, or less in either direction (greater than or less than) of thestated reference value unless otherwise stated or otherwise evident fromthe context (except where such number would exceed 100% of a possiblevalue).

Many methodologies described herein include a step of “determining”.Those of ordinary skill in the art, reading the present specification,will appreciate that such “determining” can utilize or be accomplishedthrough use of any of a variety of techniques available to those skilledin the art, including for example specific techniques explicitlyreferred to herein. In some embodiments, determining involvesmanipulation of a physical sample. In some embodiments, determininginvolves consideration and/or manipulation of data or information, forexample utilizing a computer or other processing unit adapted to performa relevant analysis. In some embodiments, determining involves receivingrelevant information and/or materials from a source. In someembodiments, determining involves comparing one or more features of asample or entity to a comparable reference.

As used herein, the term “substantially” refers to the qualitativecondition of exhibiting total or near-total extent or degree of acharacteristic or property of interest. One of ordinary skill in thebiological arts will understand that biological and chemical phenomenararely, if ever, go to completion and/or proceed to completeness orachieve or avoid an absolute result. The term “substantially” istherefore used herein to capture the potential lack of completenessinherent in many biological and chemical phenomena.

In certain embodiments, a static contact angle θ between a liquid and asolid is defined as the angle formed by a liquid drop on a solid surfaceas measured between a tangent at the contact line, where the threephases—solid, liquid, and vapor—meet, and the horizontal. The term“contact angle” usually implies the static contact angle θ since theliquid is merely resting on the solid without any movement.

As used herein, dynamic contact angle, θ_(d), is a contact angle made bya moving liquid on a solid surface. In the context of dropletimpingement, θ_(d) may exist during either advancing or recedingmovement.

As used herein, a surface is “non-wetting” if it has a dynamic contactangle with a liquid of at least 90 degrees. Examples of non-wettingsurfaces include, for example, superhydrophobic surfaces,superoleophobic surfaces, and supermetallophobic surfaces.

As used herein, contact angle hysteresis (CAH) is CAH=θ_(a)−θ_(r), whereθ_(a) and θ_(r) are advancing and receding contact angles, respectively,formed by a liquid on a solid surface. The advancing contact angle θ_(a)is the contact angle formed at the instant when a contact line is aboutto advance, whereas the receding contact angle θ_(r) is the contactangle formed when a contact line is about to recede.

It is contemplated that compositions, mixtures, systems, devices,methods, and processes of the claimed invention encompass variations andadaptations developed using information from the embodiments describedherein. Adaptation and/or modification of the compositions, mixtures,systems, devices, methods, and processes described herein may beperformed by those of ordinary skill in the relevant art.

Throughout the description, where compositions, articles, and devicesare described as having, including, or comprising specific components,or where processes and methods are described as having, including, orcomprising specific steps, it is contemplated that, additionally, thereare compositions, articles, and devices of the present invention thatconsist essentially of, or consist of, the recited components, and thatthere are processes and methods according to the present invention thatconsist essentially of, or consist of, the recited processing steps.

Similarly, where compositions, articles, and devices are described ashaving, including, or comprising specific compounds and/or materials, itis contemplated that, additionally, there are compositions, articles,and devices of the present invention that consist essentially of, orconsist of, the recited compounds and/or materials.

It should be understood that the order of steps or order for performingcertain action is immaterial so long as the invention remains operable.Moreover, two or more steps or actions may be conducted simultaneously.

The mention herein of any publication is not an admission that thepublication serves as prior art with respect to any of the claimspresented herein. Headers are provided for organizational purposes andare not meant to be limiting.

Described herein are technologies that may be applied to portions (e.g.,interior surfaces or parts thereof) of various electrochemical devices(e.g., batteries (e.g., flow batteries, aqueous batteries, non-aqueousbatteries, metal air batteries) fuel cells, capacitors (e.g.,electrolytic capacitors, flow capacitors)). In some embodiments, theelectrochemical device is a battery. In some embodiments, the battery isa flow battery, an aqueous battery, a non-aqueous battery, or ametal-air battery. In some embodiments, the electrochemical device is afuel cell. In some embodiments, the electrochemical device is acapacitor. In some embodiments, the capacitor is an electrolyticcapacitor or a flow capacitor.

The advent of micro/nano-engineered surfaces in the last decade hasopened up new techniques for enhancing a wide variety of physicalphenomena in thermofluids sciences. For example, the use of micro/nanosurface textures has provided non-wetting surfaces capable of achievingless viscous drag, reduced adhesion to ice and other materials,self-cleaning, and water repellency. These improvements result generallyfrom diminished contact (i.e., less wetting) between the solid surfacesand adjacent liquids.

One type of non-wetting surface of interest is a superhydrophobicsurface. In general, a superhydrophobic surface includesmicro/nano-scale roughness on an intrinsically hydrophobic surface, suchas a hydrophobic coating. Superhydrophobic surfaces resist contact withwater by virtue of an air-water interface within the micro/nano surfacetextures.

Some embodiments described herein relate to flow batteries that have oneor more internal surfaces coated (e.g., at time of manufacture or viaretrofitting) with a liquid-impregnated surface (LIS) to lower pumpingenergy losses and/or to improve electrochemical efficiency of the flowbattery. In some embodiments, the flow battery uses aqueouselectrochemistry. In some embodiments, the flow battery uses non-aqueouselectrochemistry. As shown, for example, in publication titled,“Maximizing Energetic Efficiency in Flow Batteries UtilizingNon-Newtonian Fluids,” by Kyle C. Smith, W. Craig Carter and Y.-M.Chiang, J. Electrochem. Soc., 161 (4) pp. A486-A496 (2014), which isincorporated herein by reference in its entirety, introducing slip atthe interface between a flow battery electrode (also referred to aselectrolytes, catholytes, and anolytes) and the internal wall of a flowchannel lowers the energy consumed in pumping the flow electrode, andalso increases the electrochemical efficiency of the electrochemicaldevice (e.g., flow battery, flow cell).

The effects of slip and viscoplastic flow do not occurindependently—they are fluid-mechanically coupled through rheologicalconstitutive and momentum balance equations. Consideration of thiscoupling is necessary to quantify the efficiency trade-offs between therheological and transport properties of semi-solid suspensions. Slip canbe modeled by a linear velocity/shear-stress relationship u_(w)=βτ_(w),where u_(w) and τ_(w) are velocity and shear stress, respectively, atthe channel wall and β is the Navier slip coefficient. Various means canbe employed to control the degree of wall slip, including surfaceroughness and the volume fraction of suspended particles. A viscoplasticcase, a Bingham plastic, for which viscosity μ varies with shear rate{dot over (γ)} as μ=μ_(ρ)+τ₀/|{dot over (γ)}|, and the flow is rigid(i.e., |{dot over (γ)}=0) for shear stresses less than the yield stressτ₀ can be modeled. This rheology exhibits shear-thinning behavior (inother words, viscosity μ decreases monotonically with increasingshear-rate magnitude |{dot over (γ)}|), with viscosity converging to thematerial-dependent plastic viscosity μ_(ρ) at high shear rates (forexample, μ(|{dot over (γ)}|, →∞)=μ_(ρ)). The pressure-driven (forexample, Poiseuille) velocity profiles of these fluids are governed bymomentum balance, and their shape is uniform where rigid, and quadraticin space where flowing. The critical aliquot factor for a given velocityprofile depends on two dimensionless numbers: the Bingham number[B_(n)=τ₀w/(2μ_(ρ)ū)], and the slip number (Sl=2μ_(ρ)/w). B_(n) is acharacteristic scale of elastic shear stresses (given by yield stressτ₀) relative to the characteristic contribution from viscoplastic stress(given by 2μ_(ρ)ū/w). Sl is a measure of the flow's slipperiness and isthe ratio of the slip extrapolation length to the channel's half-widthin the high-velocity limit (B_(n)→0).

Referring now to FIG. 12, a critical displacement profile map for theflow of a Bingham-plastic with wall slip is shown. Displacement profilesare depicted at the points specified by circles. The variations of slipratios s with yield radius R_(y) for suspensions with constant slipnumber Sl (0, 10⁻², 10⁻¹, and 10⁰) are represented by dark dashed lines,upon which triangular symbols indicate the product of Bingham and slipnumbers, BnSl, for particular flow conditions (as shown in legend ofFIG. 12). The dotted contours of constant critical aliquot factor({tilde over (m)}=0.70, 0.75, 0.80, 0.85, 0.90, 0.95, and 1.00) aresuperimposed on the map.

FIG. 12 shows the space of suspension displacement profiles (i.e., pathof suspension parcels during an intermittent flow pulse) for a Binghamplastic with slip, when displaced at a critical aliquot factorcorresponding to the particular velocity profile. Each displacementprofile is described geometrically by the flow's yield radius Ry (halfthe width of the flow's rigid core) and the slip ratio s (ratio of theslip velocity u_(w) to the mean velocity (ū). For a fixed yield radiusRy the displacement profile becomes more plug-like as the slip ratio sincreases (i.e., along a vertically ascending line on FIG. 12). For afixed slip ratio s the displacement profile becomes plug-like as theyield radius Ry increases (i.e., along a horizontal line movingrightward on FIG. 12). The slip ratio s and yield radius Ry depend onthe Bingham number Bn and slip number Sl. In other words, for each pointdefined by (Ry,s) on the displacement profile map (FIG. 12), therecorresponds a pair (Bn,Sl). For a particular slip number Sl, the yieldradius Ry and slip ratio s evolve as Bingham number Bn is varied (FIG.12, dark-dashed lines). FIG. 12 shows such curves for several slipnumbers (0, 10⁻², 10⁻¹, and 10⁰). Points are marked along eachconstant-Sl curve by triangular symbols that indicate the correspondingBingham number Bn (see FIG. 12, legend). These curves can be thought ofas “flowcurves” along which volumetric flow-rate is adjustedcontinuously, because an increase in Bingham number Bn is equivalent toa decrease in mean flow velocity ū when material properties and channelwidth are fixed. For a given constant-Sl curve, both yield radius Ry andslip ratio s increase with increasing Bingham number Bn, in other words,flow uniformity increases with increasing Bn.

The set of possible velocity profiles for Bingham-plastic flow with slipcomprise a two-dimensional space as shown in FIG. 12. Superimposed onthis map are light dotted curves along which critical aliquot factor{tilde over (m)} is constant; the particular curves shown in FIG. 12 arefor {tilde over (m)} equal to 0.70, 0.75, 0.80, 0.85, 0.90, 0.95, and1.00. Accordingly, given a specific velocity profile (determined byBingham number Bn and slip number Sl) a critical aliquot factor thatmaximizes discharge capacity and energetic efficiency may be determined.

In some embodiments, slip ratio s (calculated as ratio of the slipvelocity to the mean velocity, u_(w)/ū) is equal to or greater than 0.9.In some embodiments, the use of LIS on various surface(s) ofelectrochemical devices enables plug-like flow of the electroactivephase with a slip ratio s that is equal to or greater than 0.9.

In some instances, as discussed above, flow electrodes have a continuouspercolating network of an electronic conductor phase that impartselectronic conductivity to the flow electrodes. As also discussed above,the rheology of the flow electrodes may be non-Newtonian by possessing,for example, shear-thinning behavior, or Bingham plastic orHershel-Bulkley rheology, wherein there is a measureable yield stress tothe fluid followed by Newtonian or non-Newtonian viscosity after theyield stress is overcome. For example, in some embodiments, flowelectrodes may be composed of non-Newtonian fluids (e.g., withshear-thinning behavior, or Bingham plastic or Hershel-Bulkleyrheology), where there is a measurable yield stress to the fluid.Bingham plastics (e.g., yield stress fluids) are fluids that require afinite yield stress before beginning to flow. Typically, Binghamplastics will not flow solely via gravitational forces; in other words,an additional force (e.g., in addition to gravity) needs to be appliedto Bingham plastics in order for Bingham plastics to flow.Shear-thinning fluids (also known as thixotropic fluids) are fluids withviscosities that depend on the time history of shear (and whoseviscosities decrease as shear is continually applied). Shear-thinningfluids need to be agitated over time to begin to thin (and flow).Shear-thinning fluids typically will not flow solely via gravitationalforces; in other words, an additional force (e.g., in addition togravity) needs to be applied to shear-thinning fluids in order forshear-thinning fluids to flow.

Lubricant-impregnated surfaces (LISs) have been explored for theirslippery properties in some applications. Whereas a superhydrophobicsurface is a surface composed of solid and air, a LIS is a surfacecomposed of, for example, a solid and a liquid lubricant. Compared tosuperhydrophobic surfaces, LISs are more robust to pressure and areself-healing. The slippery properties of LISs led to incorporation ofthese surfaces for heat transfer, anti-icing, and biological systems.LISs typically have low contact angle hysteresis (<1°) with high dropletmobility. Surfaces of this type give rise to advantages inelectrochemical systems that have previously not been conceived orexplored. Some exemplary LISs are described, for example, in U.S. Pat.No. 8,574,704, filed on Aug. 16, 2012 and U.S. Pat. No. 8,535,779, filedon Jul. 17, 2012, the disclosure of each of which is incorporated hereinby reference in its entirety.

Referring to FIG. 1A, in certain embodiments, a non-wetting,liquid-impregnated surface 120 is provided that includes a solid 122 inthe form of textures (e.g., posts 124) that are impregnated with animpregnating liquid 126, rather than a gas. The solid can be a coatingon a substrate or the solid can be the substrate itself (e.g., internalsurface of a battery or flow cell). In the depicted embodiment, acontacting liquid 128 (e.g., electrochemical phase) in contact with thesurface, rests on the posts 124 (or other suitable surface texture) ofthe surface 120. In the regions between the posts 124, the contactingliquid 128 is supported by the impregnating liquid 126. In certainembodiments, the contacting liquid 128 is immiscible with theimpregnating liquid 126 (immiscibility is discussed in further detailbelow). In some embodiments, the impregnating liquid 126 forms a thin(e.g., several nanometers, e.g., 1-10 nm, 5-15 nm, 10-30 nm, 25-50 nm,40-75 nm, 50-100 nm) layer on top of the posts 124 (or other solidsurface features); in such embodiments, the contacting liquid 128 is incontact with the impregnating liquid 126.

The solid 122 may include any intrinsically hydrophobic, oleophobic,and/or metallophobic material or coating. For example, the solid 122 mayinclude: hydrocarbons, such as alkanes, and fluoropolymers, such asTEFLON®, trichloro(1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorooctyl)silane (TCS),octadecyltrichlorosilane (OTS),heptadecafluoro-1,1,2,2-tetrahydrodecyltrichlorosilane, fluoroPOSS,and/or other fluoropolymers. Additional possible materials or coatingsfor the solid 122 include: ceramics, polymeric materials, fluorinatedmaterials, intermetallic compounds, and composite materials. Polymericmaterials may include, for example, polytetrafluoroethylene,fluoroacrylate, fluorourethane, fluorosilicone, fluorosilane, modifiedcarbonate, chlorosilanes, silicone, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), and/orcombinations thereof. Ceramics may include, for example, titaniumcarbide, titanium nitride, chromium nitride, boron nitride, chromiumcarbide, molybdenum carbide, titanium carbonitride, electroless nickel,zirconium nitride, fluorinated silicon dioxide, titanium dioxide,tantalum oxide, tantalum nitride, diamond-like carbon, fluorinateddiamond-like carbon, and/or combinations thereof. Intermetalliccompounds may include, for example, nickel aluminide, titaniumaluminide, and/or combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the solid 122 is a coating of an underlyingsubstrate, where the substrate and/or the solid 122 comprises anysuitable material for use in an electrochemical device. In someembodiments, the substrate or the coating includes (or is made of) amaterial such as, for example, PTFE (TEFLON®), rare earth elements(e.g., rare earth oxides, e.g., ceria), and silicons. In someembodiments, the underlying substrate is a commercial TEFLON® membrane,for example, a commercial PTFE membrane available from StelitechCorporation (e.g., laminated PTFE membranes that are chemically andbiologically inert, stable up to, e.g., 260° C. (500° F.) or higher, andnaturally hydrophobic). In some embodiments, PTFE membranes composed offibers provide a desired level of roughness for electrochemical devicesused herein. In some embodiments, the underlying substrate is anelectronically conductive surface. In some embodiments, theelectronically conductive surface includes metals. In some embodiments,the electronically conductive surface includes a material selected fromthe group consisting of Carbon (graphene), Silver, Copper, Gold,Aluminum, Calcium, Tungsten, Zinc, Nickel, Lithium, Iron, Platinum, Tin,Carbon steel, Lead, Titanium, Grain oriented electrical steel, Manganin,Constantan, Stainless steel, Mercury, Nichrome, Carbon (graphite), andany combination thereof. In some embodiments, the substrate includes anelectrically conductive plastic (e.g., radical polymers, e.g.,Poly(2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidinyloxy methacrylate) (PTMA)).

The use of rare earth elements in non-wetting surfaces is discussed, forexample, in U.S. Application Publication No. 2013/0251946, filed on Jan.15, 2013, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference inits entirety. In certain embodiments, the rare earth element materialcomprises a rare earth oxide, a rare earth carbide, a rare earthnitride, a rare earth fluoride, and/or a rare earth boride. In certainembodiments, the rare earth element material comprises scandium oxide(Sc₂O₃), yttrium oxide (Y₂O₃), lanthanum oxide (La₂O₃), cerium oxide(CeO₂), praseodymium oxide (Pr₆O_(ii)), neodymium oxide (Nd₂O₃),samarium oxide (Sm₂O₃), europium oxide (Eu₂O₃), gadolinium oxide(Gd₂O₃), terbium oxide (Tb₄O₇), dysprosium oxide (Dy₂O₃), holmium oxide(Ho₂O₃), erbium oxide (Er₂O₃), thulium oxide (Tm₂O₃), ytterbium oxide(Yb₂O₃), lutetium oxide (Lu₂O₃), cerium carbide (CeC₂), praseodymiumcarbide (PrC₂), neodymium carbide (NdC₂), samarium carbide (SmC₂),europium carbide (EuC₂), gadolinium carbide (GdC₂), terbium carbide(TbC₂), dysprosium carbide (DyC₂), holmium carbide (HoC₂), erbiumcarbide (ErC₂), thulium carbide (TmC₂), ytterbium carbide (YbC₂),lutetium carbide (LuC₂), cerium nitride (CeN), praseodymium nitride(PrN), neodymium nitride (NdN), samarium nitride (SmN), europium nitride(EuN), gadolinium nitride (GdN), terbium nitride (TbN), dysprosiumnitride (DyN), holmium nitride (HoN), erbium nitride (ErN), thuliumnitride (TmN), ytterbium nitride (YbN), lutetium nitride (LuN), ceriumfluoride (CeF₃), praseodymium fluoride (PrF₃), neodymium fluoride(NdF₃), samarium fluoride (SmF₃), europium fluoride (EuF₃), gadoliniumfluoride (GdF₃), terbium fluoride (TbF₃), dysprosium fluoride (DyF₃),holmium fluoride (HoF₃), erbium fluoride (ErF₃), thulium fluoride(TmF₃), ytterbium fluoride (YbF₃), and/or lutetium fluoride (LuF₃).

A variety of methods may be used to produce the surface texture in aLIS, as discussed above. In some embodiments, photolithography may beused, especially for relatively small size scale and flat surfaces. Insome embodiments, chemical etching processes may be used, especially formetal oxides and plastics. Certain materials have intrinsically lowsurface energies (e.g., lower than about 50 mN/m, lower than 40 mN/m,lower than 30 mN/m, lower than 25 mN/m, between 25 and 50 mN/m, etc.)that meet the thermodynamic requirements (e.g., polycarbonate and otherpolymers, certain metals, certain ceramics (e.g., oxides of thelanthanides)), and are used without substantial additional processing(e.g., used without requiring, e.g., chemical vapor deposition orsolution based deposition of low surface energy material (e.g.,non-fluorinated (carbon chain) silanes and thiols)). In someembodiments, chemical vapor deposition of a hydrophobic monomer orgrafting of a hydrophobic thiol may be used to produce surfaces with thethermodynamic requirements for LISs.

In some embodiments, a metal surface (e.g., an electronically conductivemetal surface) is etched to provide a rough surface texture. In someembodiments, a thin (e.g., several nano-scale or micro-scale) layer ofmaterial with a low surface energy (e.g., below 50 mN/m) is applied tothe roughened metal surface. In some embodiments, the thin layer is amonolayer (e.g., molecularly thin) or the thin layer may be thicker solong at the thin layer does not cover up the rough texture (e.g., suchthat sufficient surface roughness remains on the surface afterapplication of the thin layer). In some embodiments, the thin layer canbe deposited by a number of suitable processes, including vapordeposition and solution-based deposition. In some embodiments, a numberof common chemicals can be used to form the thin monolayer, includingfluorinated and non-fluorinated (carbon chain) silanes and thiols. Insome embodiments, the low surface energy material is PTFE. In someembodiments, the low surface energy material is a rare earth oxide. Insome embodiments, the low surface energy material is at least onematerial listed above as a component making up the solid 122.

The textures within the liquid-impregnated surface 120 are physicaltextures or surface roughness. The textures may be random, includingfractal, or patterned. In certain embodiments, the textures aremicro-scale and/or nano-scale features. For example, the textures mayhave a length scale L (e.g., an average pore diameter, or an averageprotrusion height) that is less than about 100 microns, less than about10 microns, less than about 1 micron, less than about 0.1 microns, orless than about 0.01 microns. In certain embodiments, the textureincludes posts 124 or other protrusions, such as spherical orhemispherical protrusions. Rounded protrusions may be preferable in someembodiments to avoid sharp solid edges and minimize pinning of liquidedges. The texture may be introduced to the surface using anyconventional method, including mechanical and/or chemical methods suchas lithography, self-assembly, and deposition, for example. In someembodiments, the surface features (e.g., particles) are spray-deposited(e.g., deposited by aerosol or other spray mechanism).

In some embodiments, the solid features have a height no greater thanabout 100 micrometers. In certain embodiments, the features are posts(e.g., posts 124). In certain embodiments, the features include one ormore spherical particles, nanoneedles, nanograss, and/or random geometryfeatures that provides surface roughness. In certain embodiments, thefeature comprises one or more pores, cavities, interconnected pores,and/or interconnected cavities. In certain embodiments, the surfacecomprises porous media with a plurality of pores having different sizes.

The impregnating liquid 126 may be any type of liquid that is capable ofproviding the desired non-wetting properties for desired applications.For example, the impregnating liquid 126 may be oil-based (e.g.,silicone oil). In certain embodiments, the impregnating liquid 126 is anionic liquid (e.g., BMI-IM). Other examples of possible impregnatingliquids include hexadecane, vacuum pump oils (e.g., FOMBLIN® 06/6,KRYTOX® 1506) silicone oils (e.g., 10 cSt or 1000 cSt), fluorocarbons(e.g., perfluoro-tripentylamine, FC-70), shear-thinning fluids,shear-thickening fluids, liquid polymers, dissolved polymers,viscoelastic fluids, and/or liquid fluoroPOSS. In certain embodiments,the impregnating liquid is (or comprises) a hydrocarbon liquid, and/or afluorocarbon liquid. In some embodiments, the impregnating liquid 126 iselectronically or ionically conducting. In some embodiments, theimpregnating liquid includes additional components that impart electricor ionic conductivity.

In some embodiments, the impregnating liquid 126 includeselectronically-conducting particles (e.g., nanoparticles,microparticles) suspended therein (e.g., any impregnating liquid 126discussed herein with electronically conducting particles suspendedtherein). In some embodiments, the electronically-conducting particlessuspended in the impregnating liquid include nano-sized carbon particlesor nano-sized metal particles. In some embodiments, theelectronically-conducting particles form a percolating network ofelectronically-conducting particles, which allows a layer (e.g., layer128 in FIG. 1A) to be electronically conducting. In some embodiments,the LIS (e.g., LIS comprising an impregnating liquid 126 includingelectronically-conducting particles suspended therein) is applied to thecurrent collector.

In some embodiments, a “percolating conductive network,” refers toparticles that are electronically connected, such that electronic chargecarriers can be transported throughout the network. The particlesthemselves may be in actual physical contact with each other and/or someof the particles may not necessarily be in actual physical contact, butthe particles may be positioned near enough to each other (e.g., as in asuspension) such that the particles are electronically connected andelectronic charge carriers can be transported between the particles.Without being bound by a particular theory, a percolating conductivenetwork may be formed in some embodiments by electronically conductiveparticles undergoing diffusion-limited aggregation (DLA).Diffusion-limited aggregation refers to a process where particlesundergoing a random walk due to Brownian motion exhibit “hit-and-stick”behavior; that is, they stick to other particles they hit—and therebyaggregate to form fractal networks. Such networks may have aself-similar structure when observed at varying magnifications.

In some embodiments, the impregnating liquid 126 is made shearthickening with the introduction of nano particles. A shear-thickeningimpregnating liquid 126 may be desirable for preventing impalement andresisting impact from impinging liquids, for example.

In some embodiments, the impregnating liquids 126 with low vaporpressures (e.g., less than 0.1 mmHg, less than 0.001 mmHg, less than0.00001 mmHg, or less than 0.000001 mmHg) are used. In certainembodiments, the impregnating liquid 126 has a freezing point of lessthan −20° C., less than −40° C., or about −60° C. In certainembodiments, the surface tension of the impregnating liquid 126 is about15 mN/m, about 20 mN/m, or about 40 mN/m (e.g., ionic liquids). Incertain embodiments, the viscosity of the impregnating liquid 126 isfrom about 10 cSt to about 1000 cSt).

The impregnating liquid 126 may be introduced to the surface 120 usingany conventional technique for applying a liquid to a solid. In certainembodiments, a coating process, such as a dip coating, blade coating, orroller coating, is used to apply the impregnating liquid 126. In certainembodiments, the liquid lubricant is mixed with a solvent and thensprayed, because the solvent will reduce the liquid lubricant viscosity,allowing it to spray more easily and more uniformly. Then, the solventwill dry out of the coating. In certain embodiments, the method furtherincludes chemically modifying the substrate prior to applying thetexture to the substrate and/or chemically modifying the solid featuresof the texture.

In some embodiments, after the impregnating liquid 126 has been applied,capillary forces hold the liquid 126 in place between the surfacetextures (e.g., between surface posts 124). Capillary forces scaleroughly with the inverse of feature-to-feature distance or pore radius,and the features may be designed such that the liquid is held in placein-between and/or within the features despite movement of the surfaceand despite movement of fluids over the surface. In some embodiments,the lubricant is stabilized by the capillary forces arising from themicroscopic texture, and provided that the lubricant wets the solidpreferentially, this allows the electroactive phase to move (e.g.,slide, roll, slip, etc.) above the LIS surface with remarkable ease, asevidenced by the extremely low contact angle hysteresis)(−1° of theelectroactive phase. In some embodiments, in addition to low hysteresis,these non-wetting surfaces can self-heal by capillary wicking upondamage. Contact line morphology governs pinning of the electroactivephase and hence its mobility on the surface.

In some embodiments, the impregnating liquid is held in place betweenthe features regardless of orientation of the article (e.g., oriented atany angle). In some embodiments, the impregnating liquid is notdisplaced (e.g., removed) from the article (e.g., battery) during use,transport, and/or storage of the article. In some embodiments, theimpregnating liquid and the article itself is shelf-stable, e.g., duringstorage and during the useful life of the article.

In certain embodiments, nano-scale features (e.g., 1 nanometer to 1micrometer) are used to facilitate stable containment of theimpregnating liquid in-between and/or within the surface features,especially where high dynamic forces, gravitational forces, and/orshearing could pose a threat to removing the impregnating liquid fromthe surface. In some embodiments, small (e.g., nano-scale) features mayalso be useful to provide robustness.

In some embodiments, the LISs are useful for reducing viscous dragbetween a solid surface (e.g., an interior surface of an electroactivedevice) and a flowing liquid (e.g., electroactive phase). In general,the viscous drag or shear stress exerted by a liquid flowing over asolid surface is proportional to the viscosity of the liquid and theshear rate adjacent to the surface. A traditional assumption is thatliquid molecules in contact with the solid surface stick to the surface,in a so-called “no-slip” boundary condition. While some slippage mayoccur between the liquid and the surface, the no-slip boundary conditionis a useful assumption for most applications.

In certain embodiments, non-wetting surfaces, such as LISs, aredesirable as they induce a large amount of slip at the solid surface.For example, referring again to FIG. 1A, when a contacting liquid 128(e.g., electroactive phase) is supported by an impregnating liquid 126,the liquid-liquid interface is free to flow or slip with respect to theunderlying solid material. Drag reductions of as much as 40% may beachieved due to this slippage.

FIG. 1B is a schematic cross-sectional view of a liquid droplet 202(e.g., droplet of an electroactive phase) resting on aliquid-impregnated surface 204, in accordance with certain embodimentsof the invention. In some embodiments, the morphology of the dropletedge, which governs its mobility, is affected by the properties of theimpregnating liquid 126. For example, as depicted, the droplet may “pickup” the impregnating liquid 126 locally near the droplet edges. Thepooling of impregnating liquid 126 at the edges of the droplet givesrise to pinning forces. In some embodiments, during droplet roll-off,the pinning forces, and viscous forces resist droplet movement due togravity

A thermodynamic framework that allows one to predict whether a systemwill be stable for a given droplet, oil, and substrate material will bediscussed in further detail below. Droplets placed onlubricant-impregnated surfaces exhibit fundamentally different behaviorcompared to droplets placed on typical superhydrophobic surfaces. Insome embodiments, these four-phase systems can have up to threedifferent three-phase contact lines, giving up to twelve differentthermodynamic configurations. There are three possible configurations toconsider for the interface outside of the droplet (in an airenvironment), and three possible configurations to consider for theinterface underneath the droplet (in a water environment). Theseconfigurations are shown in FIG. 1C along with the total interfaceenergy of each configuration.

The configurations possible outside the droplet are A1 (not impregnated,i.e., dry), A2 (impregnated with emergent features), and A3 (impregnatedwith submerged features—i.e., encapsulated). On the other hand,underneath the droplet, the possible configurations are W1 (impaled), W2(impregnated with emergent features), and W3 (impregnated with submergedfeatures—i.e., encapsulated). The stable configuration will be the onethat has the lowest total interface energy. Referring now toconfigurations outside the droplet, the textured surface as it is slowlywithdrawn from a reservoir of oil could be in any of states A1, A2, andA3 depending on which has the lowest energy. For example, state A2 wouldbe stable if it has the lowest total interface energy, i.e.E_(A2)<E_(A1), E_(A3). From FIG. 1C, this results in:

E _(A2) <E _(A1)↔(γ_(sa)−γ_(os))/γ_(oa)>(1−ϕ)/(r−ϕ)  (1)

E _(A2) <E _(A3)↔γ_(sa)−γ_(os)−γ_(oa)<0  (2)

where γ is the interfacial tension between the two phases designated bysubscripts w, a, o, and s, where w is water, a is air, and o is theimpregnating liquid, s is solid surface, ϕ is the fraction of theprojected area of the surface that is occupied by the solid and r is theratio of total surface area to the projected area of the solid. In thecase of square posts with width “a”, edge-to-edge spacing “b”, andheight “h”, ϕ=a²/(a+b)² and r=1+4ah/(a+b)². Applying Young's equation,cos(θ_(os(a)))=(γ_(sa)−γ_(os))/γ_(oa), Eq. (1) reduces to thehemi-wicking criterion for the propagation of oil through a texturedsurface: cos(θ_(os(a)))>(1−ϕ)/(r−ϕ)=cos(θ_(c)). This requirement can beconveniently expressed as θ_(os(a))<θ_(r). In Eq. (2),γ_(sa)−γ_(os)−γ_(oa), is simply the spreading coefficient S_(os(a)) ofoil on the textured surface in the presence of air. This may bereorganized as (γ_(sa)−γ_(os))/γ_(oa)<1, and applying Young's equationagain, Eq. (2) can be written as θ_(os(a))>0. Expressing Eq. (1) interms of the spreading coefficient S_(os(a)), yields:−γ_(oa)(r−1)/(r−ϕ)<S_(os(a)). The above simplifications then lead to thefollowing equivalent criteria for the surface to be in state A2:

E _(A2) <E _(A1) ,E _(A3)↔θ_(c)>θ_(os(a))>0↔−γ_(oa)(r−1)/(r−0)<S_(os(a))<0  (3)

Similarly, state A3 would be stable if E_(A3)<E_(A2), E_(A1). From FIG.1C, this gives:

E _(A3) <E _(A2)↔θ_(os(a))=0↔γ_(sa)−γ_(os)−γ_(oa) ≡S _(os(a))≥0  (4)

E _(A3) <E _(A1)↔θ_(os(a))<cos⁻¹(1/r)↔S _(os(a))>−γ_(oa)(1/r)  (5)

Note that Eq. (5) is automatically satisfied by Eq. (4), thus thecriterion for state A3 to be stable (i.e., encapsulation) is given byEq. (4). Following a similar procedure, the condition for state A1 to bestable can be derived as

E _(A1) <E _(A2) ,E _(A3)↔θ_(os(a))>θ_(c) ↔S_(os(a))<−γ_(oa)(r−1)/(r−ϕ)  (6)

The rightmost expression of Eq. (4) can be rewritten as(γ_(sa)−γ_(os))/γ_(oa)≥1. This raises an important point: Young'sequation would suggest that if θ_(os(a))=0, then (γ_(sa)−γ_(os))γ_(oa)=1 (i.e., S_(os(a))=0). However, θ_(os(a))=0 is true also for thecase that (γ_(sa)−γ_(os))/γ_(oa)>1 (i.e., S_(os(a))>0). It is importantto realize that Young's equation predicts the contact angle based onbalancing the surface tension forces on a contact line—the equality onlyexists for a contact line at static equilibrium. For a spreading film(S_(os(a))>0) a static contact line does not exist, hence precluding theapplicability of Young's equation.

The configurations possible underneath the droplet are discussed in theparagraphs below. Upon contact with water, the interface beneath thedroplet will attain one of the three different states—W1, W2, or W3(FIG. 1C)—depending on which has the lowest energy. Applying the samemethod to determine the stable configurations of the interface beneaththe droplet, the stability requirements take a form similar to Eqs. (3),(4), and (6), with γ_(oa), γ_(sa), θ_(os(a)), S_(os(a)), replaced withγ_(ow), γ_(sw), θ_(os(w)), S_(os(w)) respectively. In addition, θ_(c) isnot affected by the surrounding environment as it is only a function ofthe texture parameters, ϕ and r. Thus, the texture will remainimpregnated with oil beneath the droplet with emergent post tops (i.e.,state W2) when:

E _(W2) <E _(W1) ,E _(W3)↔θ_(c)>θ_(os(w))>0↔γ_(ow)(r−1)/(r−ϕ)<S_(os(w))<0  (7)

State W3 will be stable (i.e., the oil will encapsulate the texture)when:

E _(W3) <E _(W1) ,E _(W2)↔θ_(os(w))=0↔γ_(sw)−γ_(os)−γ_(ow) ≡S_(os(w))≥0  (8)

and the droplet will displace the oil and be impaled by the textures(state W1) when:

E _(W1) <E _(W2) ,E _(W3)↔θ_(os(w))>θ_(c) ↔S_(os(w))<−γ_(ow)(r−1)/(r−ϕ)  (9)

As depicted in FIG. 1F, in some embodiments, a LIS is composed oftextures that contain a lubricant (e.g., impregnating liquid 126 of FIG.1A). In some embodiments, as discussed above, the lubricant is heldbetween the surface features by capillary forces. In some embodiments,the lubricant is stably held in place between the surface featuresregardless of orientation of the surface (e.g., the lubricant does notescape the surface features via gravitational forces). The contact lineof working fluid moves across a LIS freely. An untreated surface (e.g.,a surface without a lubricant and/or impregnated liquid) on the otherhand typically has inherent roughness and the advancing contact linereadily pins on asperities, as depicted, for example, in FIG. 1E,resulting in non-slip motion. On a LIS, the advancing contact line movesfreely with slip motion, as shown in FIG. 1F.

In some embodiments, LISs may be used to reduce friction (e.g., viscousdrag) between a solid surface and a flowing liquid, e.g., where anelectrochemically active component (e.g., charge storing electrodes orelectrochemical fuels) contacts the surface(s) (or a portion of thesurface(s)) of an electrochemical device.

In some embodiments, charge storing electrodes may be batteryelectrodes, flow battery electrodes (e.g., catholytes, anolytes),capacitor electrodes, and flow capacitor electrodes.

In some embodiments, electrochemical fuels may include condensed phasefrom which electrical energy is obtained through the electrochemicalreaction in a device. Condensed phase fuels may be single phase ormultiphase. Condensed phase fuels may include organic or inorganiccompound(s) (or any combination thereof). In some embodiments, condensedphase fuels may include liquids, phase separated liquids, solids,liquid-solid suspensions, semi-solids, gels, micelles, and anycombination thereof. In some embodiments, the condensed phase includeswater in a hydrogen fuel cell or water in a methanol fuel cell.

In some embodiments, LISs are used to reduce friction during operationof an electrochemical device where one or more electroactive phasesundergo flow through the device.

In some embodiments, LISs are used to reduce friction during manufactureof an electrochemical device. In some embodiments, one or moreelectroactive phases are flowed/transported along one or more surface(s)(and/or portion(s) thereof) of the electrochemical device duringmanufacture of the electrochemical device. In some embodiments, anysurface (or part or portion thereof) (e.g., pipeline for themanufacturing process) or any part of any equipment that comes intocontact with one or more electroactive phases during manufacture of theelectrochemical device includes or is coated with a LIS. For example,devices that are coated with LIS may lose less active material duringpumping or transporting. In manufacturing of conventional batteries, thecomponents of the battery are added to the cell and the cell is sealed(e.g., as in a cylindrical battery cell). In some embodiments, thedevices that pump, transport, or otherwise come into contact with theelectrochemically active phases that are included in conventionalbatteries (and other devices) are coated with LISs such that a smallerfraction of the electrochemically active phase is lost during themanufacturing processes.

In some embodiments, embodiments of the present invention may be usefulfor flow batteries and similar devices, as the surfaces described hereincan lower pumping energy losses and/or increase the electrochemicalenergy efficiency of flow batteries. In some embodiments, LISs of thepresent invention enable the electrode to flow where otherwise the yieldstress of the electrode cannot be overcome without the LIS (e.g., wherethe electrode would not flow without the LIS or where the electrodewould become pinned to the surface, as shown, for example in FIG. 1E).

In some embodiments, LISs may influence or control flow velocity,gradients in velocity, extent of slip, and/or direction of flow of anelectroactive phase or electrolyte in an electrochemical device. In someembodiments, LISs allow for precise control of the velocity and/ortrajectory of movement of an electroactive phase or electrolyte in anelectrochemical device.

In some embodiments, LISs may be used to facilitate and/or control theflow of any viscous or yield-stress fluid(s) flowing through a fluidicor microfluidic geometry for electrochemical applications.

In some embodiments, a location of a reactant or product phase on a LISmay be controlled by selecting lubricants and/or surface coatings withdesired properties (e.g., surface tension, wettability, viscosity,melting/freezing point, and any combination thereof). In someembodiments, LISs may increase or decrease an amount of nucleation,growth, precipitation, or segregation of a liquid or solid phase at theinterface between LISs and electroactive phases. For example, in alithium-sulfur battery, the sulfur undergoes a series oftransformations, e.g., from S₈ to Li₂S₈, Li₂S₆, Li₂S₄, Li₂S₂, and Li₂Sduring cycling. Of these species, Li₂S₈, Li₂S₆ are soluble in theelectrolyte. Li₂S₄ is insoluble in typical solvents (e.g., for example,Li₂S₄ is insoluble in TEG-DME) and, therefore, may deposit on surfaces.If Li₂S₄ (or other insoluble species such as Li₂S₂ or Li₂S) deposit awayfrom the electrode, that material may not be recovered (e.g., suchdeposition would typically result in loss of Li-bearing active material,and hence loss of capacity of the battery). The use of a LIS may preventinsoluble species, for example Li₂S₄ from depositing on unwantedsurfaces (e.g., from depositing on surfaces that are not electricallyconnected to the terminals of the battery or are otherwiseelectrochemically inactive). Similarly, Li₂S₂, and Li₂S are insoluble intypical solvents, and the use of a LIS may prevent these species fromdepositing on unwanted surfaces (e.g., from depositing on surfaces thatare not electrochemically active). In some embodiments, LISs mayincrease precipitation of a phase (e.g., electroactive phase) at theinterface by acting as a heterogeneous nucleation surface, as discussedin further detail below. In certain embodiments, LISs may serve tosuppress nucleation, growth, or precipitation of a phase (e.g.,electroactive phase) at the interface by producing an interface suchthat the precipitating phase has a high contact angle at the interface.

In some embodiments, at least one surface (or any portion thereof) in anelectrochemical device may have (or be coated or retrofitted with) aLIS. In some embodiments, a non-wetting lubricant phase may be used toavoid infiltration into a porous component or membrane of the device. Insome embodiments, a current collector of the device is selected to benon-wetting. In some embodiments, a membrane covers the currentcollector. In some embodiments, the membrane is filled with the workingsolvent (e.g., TEG-DME, which is not used as an impregnating liquidlubricant in this embodiment). In some embodiments, the LIS, whichcomprises the impregnating liquid lubricant, is provided before thecurrent collector. In some embodiments, the impregnating liquidlubricant is selected such that it does not spread out of the LIS andcannot and get into the membrane on the current collector, which wouldprevent it from working properly, which is undesirable. In someembodiments, the impregnating liquid lubricant is KRYTOX® 1506 (afluorinated ether). In some embodiments, the impregnating liquidlubricant (e.g., KRYTOX® 1506) is impregnated into a porous TEFLON®membrane (e.g., having a pore size of about 0.2 μm).

Flow Battery

In some embodiments, the electrochemical device is a flow battery. Incertain embodiment, a flow cathode is a solution and/or suspension oflithium polysulfide Li_(x)S_(y) in aqueous or non-aqueous electrolyte,and comprises a suspension of carbon black that forms a percolatingnetwork providing electronic conductivity. The non-aqueous electrolytemay, for example, be based on glymes (e.g., tetraethylene glycoldimethyl ether (TEG-DME), diglyme, dioxolane-dimethoxyethane (DOL-DME)),and may optionally include a lithium salt (e.g.,Bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide lithium salt (LiTFSI)). A high carbonblack content may be desired in some embodiments to increase theelectronic conductivity of the flow cathode, but without compromisingthe ability of the electrode to flow.

FIG. 2 is a plot showing exemplary electrochemical impedancespectroscopy as a function of carbon black (Ketjenblack, KB) loading, inaccordance with certain embodiments of the present invention. Thesuspension tested to construe the chart shown in FIG. 2 included carbonblack and an electrolyte (tetraethylene glycol dimethyl ether (TEG-DME),0.5M bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide lithium salt (LiTFSI) and 1 wt %LiNO₃). The measurements were conducted with a Swagelok cell with twoparallel plates of 1.59 mm.

As seen, for example, in FIG. 2, the charge transfer resistance of alithium half-cell may decrease with increasing amount of carbon black inthe suspension. However, as the concentration of carbon black increases,the viscosity of the suspension also increases, and at sufficiently highconcentrations (e.g., carbon black loadings greater than or equal to (≥)about 0.15 vol %, 0.2 vol %, 0.3 vol %, 0.4 vol %, 0.45 vol %, 0.5 vol%), the flow cathode becomes a yield-stress fluid. In some embodiments,a carbon network percolates at a carbon black volume fraction of 0.15vol %. Typically, any suspension with carbon black loading of 0.15 vol %or greater may exhibit a yield-stress. For example, TEG-DME exhibits ayield-stress of 0.2 Pa when loaded with 0.25 vol % carbon black.Yield-stress is typically not a linear function with carbon blackloading. For example, TEG-DME loaded with 0.75 vol % carbon black has ayield-stress of 4 Pa, while TEG-DME loaded with 1.5 vol % carbon blackhas a yield-stress of about 42 Pa. Yield-stress fluids createdifficulties in using such flow electrodes in flow batteries. In someembodiments, use of LISs enables overcoming these difficulties as thesesurfaces enable flow of yield-stress fluids along the LISs. In someembodiments, yield-stress fluids flow along the surfaces of the flowbatteries such that the interior surfaces of the flow batteries that arein contact with the yield-stress fluids are substantially free fromresidue left by the yield-stress fluids along the path of flow of theyield-stress fluids. In some embodiments, no residue of the yield-stressfluids is left along their path of flow. In some embodiments, theyield-stress fluids flow along the surfaces of the flow batteries solelydue to gravity (e.g., without requiring an application of an additionalforce, e.g., without requiring shaking or otherwise agitating theyield-stress fluids).

Gravity Induced Flow Cell (“GIF Cell”)

In some embodiments, the electrode flows along a LIS surface under theinfluence of gravity (e.g., a gravity-induced flow cell, or GIF cell, asdescribed in U.S. Patent Application 61/911,101, filed on Dec. 3, 2013,which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). In someembodiments, the electrode of a GIF cell flows along a LIS surfacesolely due to gravitational forces (e.g., without requiring anyagitation or other forces in order for the electrode to move along thesurface).

In some embodiments, the GIF cell includes first and second reservoirshaving a selected volume containing a flowable redox electrode. In someembodiments, a membrane is provided separating charged and dischargedmaterial. In some embodiments, the flow cell includes anenergy-extraction region including electronically conductive currentcollectors through or adjacent to which the flowable redox electrodesflow and to which charge transfer occurs. In some embodiments, thecurrent collector is a plate including channels to direct flow and/or toincrease surface area, a porous electronically conductive material, or apercolating network of conductor particles or fibers that flows with theelectrode. In some embodiments, structure is provided for alteringorientation of the flow cell with respect to gravity whereby gravityinduces flow of the redox electrodes between the first and secondreservoirs. In some embodiments, the GIF cell includes a motor forvarying the angle of the cell with respect to gravity. In someembodiments, the energy extraction region has a volume and ratio of thevolume of the energy-extraction region to reservoir volume is selectedto be in the range of about 1 to about 1000.

In some embodiments, a stationary current collector includes carbon. Insome embodiments, the carbon is selected from the group consisting ofglassy carbon, disordered carbon, graphite, and nanoparticulate carbonincluding fullerenes, carbon nanofibers, and carbon nanotubes, graphene,and graphene oxide. In some embodiments, the carbon may be in the formof a carbon plate, plate with nonplanar surface features includingchannels, compacted fibers, woven fibers, paper, or 3D reticulated foam.In some embodiments, a stationary current collector may be a carboncoating on a support or substrate comprising an insulating or conductivematerial.

In some embodiments, the stationary current collector is a metal ormetal alloy such as aluminum, copper, nickel, and stainless steel. Insome embodiments, the metal or metal alloy may be in the form of a metalplate, plate with nonplanar surface features including channels,compacted metal fibers, woven metal fibers, 3D reticulated metal foam.In some embodiments, a stationary current collector may be a metal ormetal alloy coating on a support substrate comprising an insulating orconductive material.

In some embodiments, the stationary current collector is a metal oxide,including, for example, an electronically conductive metal oxide such asindium-tin-oxide (ITO), titanium, oxide with an oxygen/titanium atomicratio less than 2, vanadium oxide with oxygen/vanadium atomic ratio lessthan about 2.5, ruthenium oxide, a transition metal oxide, a perovskiteoxide, a spinel oxide including but not limited to spinels containingthe transition metals Fe. Co, Mn and Ni, and mixtures and doped variantsof such oxides including those doped to impart n-type or p-typeelectronic conductivity. The metal oxide may be in the form of a metaloxide plate, plate with nonplanar surface features including channels,metal fibers, or porous sintered metal oxide. In some embodiments, astationary current collector may be a metal oxide coating on a supportor substrate comprising an insulating or conductive material.

In some embodiments, the electroactive phase of (e.g., of a GIF cell) isa redox electrode. In some embodiments, the redox electrode is asuspension. In some embodiments, the suspension includes conductorparticles and active material particles. In some embodiments, due to theexistence of a percolating electronically conductive network in suchsuspensions, the percolating network itself acts as an extended, mobilecurrent collector allowing electrochemical reaction to take placethroughout the volume of the flow electrode. In some embodiments, activematerials suspensions include those described in U.S. Pat. No.8,722,227, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Insome embodiments, the flowable redox electrode is a metal sulfidecomposition described in PCT/US2014/014681, which is incorporated hereinby reference in its entirety. In some embodiments, the flowable redoxelectrode working ion is an alkali ion selected from the groupconsisting of Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, and Cs⁺. In some embodiments, the workingion is a trivalent ion of aluminum or yttrium. In some embodiments, thereservoirs and/or the energy-extraction region includes a LIS surface,as discussed herein.

In some embodiments, the electroactive phase includes water as asolvent. In some embodiments, the electroactive phase is non-aqueous. Insome embodiments, the electroactive phase is a suspension includingconductor particles. In some embodiments, the suspension includes anelectronically percolating network, which includes solids (e.g.,carbons, metal oxides, metals, and metal alloys). In some embodiments,the suspension is electronically conductive. In some embodiments, thesuspension is a mixed electronic-ionic conductor.

FIGS. 3A and 3B show a schematic of a battery 300 (GIF cell). A flowelectrode 302 (e.g., the cathode when the counter electrode is astationary electrode (e.g., a Li metal electrode)) may be stored in atop compartment 312 of the battery 300. By tilting the device 300 at anangle α (310), as shown in FIG. 3B, the flow electrode 302 may move fromthe top compartment 312 to a lower compartment 314 due to gravity (e.g.,solely due to gravity, e.g., without requiring the application ofadditional force(s) to enable flow of the flow electrode 302). Chargingand discharging of the flow electrode 302 may be carried out in theelectrochemical-active region (e.g., in between the current collectors304). As shown in FIGS. 3A and 3B, the battery includes a currentcollector 304 that is in contact with a layer of lithium 306. The layerof lithium 306 is in contact with a separator 308. In some embodiments,electronically conductive flow electrodes can be used in this device(e.g., device 300). For example, carbon black may be included in theelectroactive phase (e.g., flow electrode 302). In some embodiments, anincreased content of carbon black may increase electronic conductivity.However, in conventional GIF cells, the maximum carbon black content(e.g., about 0.5 vol % or lower) is typically determined by flowability(e.g., viscosity, yield stress of the flowing phase) with the givengravitational force. In conventional systems, an amount of carbon blackhigher than 0.5 vol % typically results in pinning of the electroactivephase to the surface. A LIS may enable an electroactive phase withhigher carbon content (e.g., for example, but not limited to, higherthan 0.5 vol %, up to about 1 vol % or higher than 1 vol %) to slip inGIF cells, since the yield stress need not be overcome for flow tooccur. This is particularly true of flow battery designs where thecross-sectional dimensions of the flow channels are substantiallyconstant. In some embodiments, the use of LIS surfaces allowselectroactive phases (e.g., suspensions) with any amount of carbon blackloading to be used (e.g., there is no upper limit of yield-stress).

In some embodiments, once a flow electrode overcomes a required yieldstress by gravitational force, it may pass through the electroactivezone of the flow battery (i.e., the stack) rapidly (e.g., flow quickly).Once the flow electrode overcomes the required yield stress and startsmoving, due to its high flow rate, it may not have sufficient time atthe electroactive zone to produce desired current rates, which isundesirable in some embodiments. In some embodiments, the use of LISsenables precise control of flow rates of the flow electrode, resultingin high electrochemical utilization of the flow electrodes and highround-trip energy efficiency of the flow battery. In some embodiments,the use of the LISs enables control of flow rates of the flow electrodesuch that the flow electrode to be charged or discharged has sufficienttime at the electroactive zone to produce desired current rates. Forexample, the speed at which the flow electrode moves may be controlledby the viscosity of the impregnating liquid. For example, in someembodiments, the use of impregnating liquids with higher viscosityresults in slowing down the speed of the flow of the electroactivephase. In some embodiments, the use of the LISs enables control of flowtrajectories of the flow electrode.

For example, in some embodiments, the flow electrode flows from a firstposition (e.g., top compartment) to a second position (e.g. bottomcompartment), passing through an electroactive zone (e.g., middlecompartment located between the top compartment and the bottomcompartment) along its path of flow. In some embodiments, the use ofLISs allows for the flow electrode to flow (or slip) at a first velocityfrom the first position to the electroactive zone. In some embodiments,the use of LISs allows for the flow electrode to flow (or slip) at asecond velocity through the electroactive zone, e.g., where the secondvelocity is slower than the first velocity (so that, e.g., the flowelectrode spends sufficient time in the electroactive zone). In someembodiments, the flow electrode stops (e.g., has no velocity) in atleast a portion of the electroactive zone. In some embodiments, the flowelectrode has a third velocity from the electroactive zone to the secondposition (e.g., where the third velocity is the same as or differentthan the first velocity).

FIG. 4 illustrates the behavior of droplets of an exemplary flowelectrode (cathode) on different surfaces, at different tilting anglesα, at different time periods. In FIG. 4, α=40° on Teflon surface in theleft portion of FIG. 4; α=70° on TEFLON® surface in the middle portionof FIG. 4; and α=40° on a LIS in the right portion of FIG. 4. Anon-stick surface (e.g., TEFLON®) is used in the leftmost and middleexperimental setups, and is found to increase droplet slip compared tothe underlying ABS-like plastic. The top row of FIG. 4 (left, right, andmiddle) shows a droplet composed of 0.75 vol % carbon black (KetjenblackEC-600JD, Akzo Nobel) dispersed in 0.5 M LiTFSI, 1 wt % of LiNO₃ and 2.5M Li₂S₈ (molarity with respect to sulfur) in TEG-DME. The droplet iscomposed of fluid that is a yield-stress fluid, where the yield stressis estimated to be 5 Pa (e.g., about the yield stress of ordinaryketchup). The circles around the black droplets in the top row of FIG. 4indicate where the drops were initially deposited (at t=0 seconds). Thebottom row of FIG. 4 shows the motion of the droplets after t=15seconds. On a smooth TEFLON® surface at a 40° incline, the droplet didnot move at all (the droplet is stuck (pinned) to the surface), as shownin the bottom left portion of FIG. 4. On the same surface inclined to70°, the droplet also exhibits contact line pinning: while the front ofthe droplet moved, the droplet left a trail of wetted surface where thedroplet was in contact with the TEFLON® surface (e.g., after 15 seconds,a significant amount of the droplet remained in the same position as itwas at t=0), as shown in the bottom middle portion of FIG. 4. On the LISsurface inclined at 40°, the droplet of the flow electrode (cathode)moved in the direction of the tilting angle α and left no fluid behind(e.g., left no fluid along its path of flow), as shown in the bottomright portion of FIG. 4. In FIG. 4 (right), the LIS was a porous TEFLON®membrane (pore size of 0.2 μm, Sterlitech) impregnated with siliconeoil.

As shown in FIG. 4 (rightmost), the LIS coated surface allows the flowelectrode droplet to move under gravitational force without leaving anyresidue along the flow electrode path of flow when the tilting angleα=40°. The LIS exhibits markedly improved slip as compared to theTEFLON® surface without a LIS.

In some embodiments, when the flow electrode (cathode) moves from afirst location to a second location along its path of flow, the firstlocation from which the flow electrode (cathode) moves is free of flowelectrode (cathode) residue (e.g., the path of flow is clean, the flowelectrode (cathode) does not smear or smudge along its path of flow asshown, for example, in the right portion of FIG. 4). In someembodiments, when the flow electrode (cathode) moves from a firstlocation to a second location along its path of flow, the first locationfrom which the flow electrode (cathode) moves is essentially free offlow electrode (cathode) (e.g., where less than 10%, less than 7.5%,less than 5%, less than 2.5%, less than 1%, less than 0.5%, less than0.1%, less than 0.01%, less than 0.001% by weight of the flow electrode(cathode) remains in the first location).

Thus, LISs allow flow electrodes with yield-stresses (e.g., yieldstresses above 5 Pa, 5 Pa-20 Pa, 10 Pa-30 Pa, 20 Pa-40 Pa, 25 Pa-50 Pa,up to 50 Pa, 60 Pa, 50 Pa-100 Pa, 75 Pa-150 Pa, 100 Pa-250 Pa, 200Pa-450 Pa, 400 Pa-650 Pa, 500 Pa-800 Pa, 750 Pa-900 Pa, 850 Pa-1.25 kPa,1 kPa-1.5 kPa, 1.25 kPa-1.75 kPa, 1.5 kPa-2 kPa, 1.75 kPa-2 kPa, etc.(e.g., with appropriate geometry of the cell design)) to be used andimproves the performance of cells using such electrodes, for example, bylowering the pressure required to pump the fluid, or allowing controlledflow in a passively driven flow battery, one example of which is a GIFcell.

Advantages of Using LISs in Electrochemical Applications

In some embodiments, a LIS allows most of the flow electrode (e.g., morethan 75%, more than 80%, more than 90%, more than 95%, more than 97%,more than 98%, more than 99%, more than 99.5%, more than 99.9%) to passthrough the electroactive region rather than being left on the interiorwalls of the tank and/or the reservoir. In other words, in someembodiments, a LIS allows the flow electrode to flow without leaving aresidue along its path of flow. In some embodiments, the path of flow ofthe flow electrode is substantially free from residue (e.g., less than10%, less than 5%, less than 3%, less than 2%, less than 1%, less than0.5%, less than 0.1%, less than 0.01%, less than 0.001% of residue ofthe flow electrode (calculated based on the total amount of the flowelectrode flowing along the path of flow) remains along the path of flowof the flow electrode). In some embodiments, LISs help in preventingflow instabilities (e.g., viscous fingering or cavitation formingbubbles within the flow compartment) that can block the flow. Forexample, in some embodiments, the use of LISs reduces the occurrence offlow instabilities, e.g., that occur as a result friction (shearstress), at the surface, and thus reduces viscous fingering orcavitation forming bubbles.

In some embodiments, a LIS surface introduces slip when a flowing fluidcontacts the walls. As shown in FIG. 5, the slip surface changes theshape of the velocity profile, closer to plug flow (e.g., velocity atinterface velocity at center of the flow) than non-slip flow (e.g.,velocity at interface <<velocity at center of the flow). As shown bycomputational modeling in “Maximizing Energetic Efficiency in FlowBatteries Utilizing Non-Newtonian Fluids,” by Kyle C. Smith, W. CraigCarter and Y.-M. Chiang, J. Electrochem. Soc., 161 (4) pp. A486-A496(2014), 8 plug flow changes the dynamics of charge transfer during theelectrochemical reaction and leads to higher energy efficiency.

In some embodiments, slip may reduce shearing in the fluid. The rate ofshear in the fluid is related to the derivative of the velocity. Asshown in FIG. 5, a surface with slip has less shear in the bulk fluid.For a battery, shearing can result in deteriorating the electrolyte. Forexample, shearing in a lithium sulfide battery using carbon black maydestroy the conducting network of the carbon black and make thesuspension (flow cathode) less electronically conductive. A LIS mayintroduce slip conditions, reducing this effect.

Use of LIS Provides Benefits During Manufacturing of Non-FlowElectrochemical Devices

The advantages of using LISs are not limited to flow-based devices(e.g., flow batteries, flow capacitors, or fuel cells). In someembodiments, electrode cavities in stationary or non-flowelectrochemical devices may be filled with a flowable electrode duringthe manufacturing processes (e.g., as described in Y.-M. Chiang, W. C.Carter, P. Limthongkul, R. Bazzarella, M. Duduta, J. Disko, J. Cross,Semi-Solid Filled Battery and Method of Manufacture, Int'l PatentApplication WO2012088442A2, published Jun. 28, 2012, which isincorporated herein by reference in its entirety). As fluid flow is usedprimarily for the manufacturing process, a LIS can enhancemanufacturability by lowering the required pressure to initiate flow(e.g., to overcome a yield stress or to achieve steady state flow with ahighly viscous electrode suspension or paste), by improving theuniformity of filling the electrode cavity, and/or by increasing thedimensions or aspect ratio (e.g., length or width relative to thickness)of the electrode that can be practically manufactured.

Controlling Phase Transitions/Deposition

Controlling Precipitate Formation

In some electrochemical systems, including, but not limited to storagebatteries and capacitors, the electrochemical reaction involves areacting material that is soluble at certain states of charge of thedevice, but insoluble at other states of charge, or under differentoperating conditions, such as, for example, at different temperatures.

Lithium sulfur batteries are one example of such a device where thereactive material undergoes solubility changes during operation.Discharging a sulfur-based battery involves the chemical transformationof S to Li₂S. The sulfur positive electrode is present as solid sulfurin some Li—S batteries, and as solubilized polysulfide species in othertypes of Li—S batteries. Intermediate polysulfides such as, for example,Li₂S₈, Li₂S₆, Li₂S₄, Li₂S₂ are typically formed during theelectrochemical cycling process. In commonly used solvents (for example,in TEG-DME), only Li₂S₈ and Li₂S₆ species are soluble while Li₂S is notsoluble and precipitates from the solution. If the non-soluble materialprecipitates on the current collector during discharge, electrontransfer to and from the precipitate may subsequently occur, allowingreversible precipitation and dissolution and providing reversiblestorage capacity to the battery. However, the precipitating material canalso deposit on internal surfaces of the electrochemical systems (e.g.,batteries) that are not in contact with the current collectors,especially as its solubility limit is exceeded. Surfaces that act asheterogeneous nucleation sites for the precipitating reaction productmay be deposition sites where the precipitate is electronically isolatedfrom the current collectors. In this instance, the precipitate cannot bere-dissolved upon charge, and the charge storage capacity of theisolated precipitate material becomes effectively lost, which isundesirable. The stored capacity and energy of the battery may therebybe degraded as the battery is cycled and increasing amounts ofprecipitate (e.g., Li₂S) are electrically isolated.

In some embodiments, LISs can be used to prevent undesirable capacityloss due to precipitation of insoluble materials discussed above. Insome conventional systems, a loss of 5-80% (e.g., 5-15%, 10-25%, 20-35%,30-45%, 40-60%, 45-65%, 50-70%, 65%-80%, 75%-80% of capacity over 100cycles as a result of precipitation of insoluble materials is observed.In some embodiments, the use of LISs provides a significant reduction inundesirable capacity loss due to the precipitation of insolublematerials (e.g., Li₂S). As discussed above, a LIS provides a liquidinterface between the electroactive phase and the underlying surface ofthe electrochemical device (e.g., battery). As such, the LIS interfaceis extremely smooth (e.g., in some embodiments, the tops of the solidfeatures are coated with a thin layer of lubricant), and, in addition,has a lower interfacial energy than most solid surfaces, and therefore,is a less potent heterogeneous nucleation site than typical solid-liquidinterfaces within electrochemical devices. In other words, the adhesionstrength between the LIS and the precipitate is lower than the adhesionstrength between a solid surface and precipitate. In some embodiments,the tops of the solid features are not coated with a thin layer oflubricant. As such, in some embodiments, LISs are used to inhibitnucleation of precipitate formed in electrochemical systems, e.g., insome embodiments, LISs are used to inhibit scale formation, acting as an“antifouling coating.” In some embodiments, LISs are used to inhibitnucleation of precipitate formed in the electrochemical active region(e.g., where the transformation from soluble Li₂S₆ to Li₂S results ininsoluble species forming), where the LIS prevents the insoluble species(e.g., Li₂S) from sticking to the current collector. In someembodiments, the nucleation/precipitation may occur in the bulk fluidrather than on the surface, which is typically not concerning because insuch a case, the precipitate is not lost by adhering to the surfacesaway from the current collector. In some embodiments, the desiredreactions for charging or discharging may be enhanced, asnucleation/precipitation is less advantageous. Inhibiting/preventing theprecipitation and adherence of reacting material (such as insolublelithium sulfide species) to the electroactive region surface(s) isbeneficial to the reversibility and energy density of a storage battery,and is an extension of the antifouling function. Undesirableprecipitation (and resulting adherence of insoluble species tosurface(s) of the electrochemically active region) from solution canalso occur in other electrochemical systems such as capacitors and fuelcells. In some embodiments, LISs are used to inhibit/prevent adherenceof insoluble lithium sulfide species to electroactive surfaces incapacitors and fuel cells.

In some embodiments, the use of LISs mitigates the effects ofundesirable precipitation from solution in various electrochemicalsystems. In some embodiments, the use of LISs mitigates the effects ofundesirable precipitation from solution in various electrochemicalsystems by maintaining the reversibility of the electrochemical device(e.g., battery) by, for example, inhibiting/preventing adhesion ofinsoluble species to surface(s) of electroactive region(s). In someembodiments, the use of LISs mitigates the effects of undesirableprecipitation from solution in various electrochemical systems bymaintaining the energy density of the electrochemical device (e.g.,battery, capacitor, flow cell, etc.).

Delaying Freezing

In some embodiments, the use of LISs prevents the formation of ice forsimilar reasons as discussed above in relation to precipitation: the LISis a less energetically favorable nucleation site than other types ofsurfaces. In electrochemical systems that use a liquid electrolyte,freezing of the electrolyte can cause (and often does cause) its ionicconductivity to be greatly decreased, amongst other possible detrimentaleffects such as mechanical damage from crystallization. In someembodiments, the use of a LIS extends the operating temperature range ofan electrochemical device to lower temperatures compared to the samesystem without a LIS. With the use of a LIS, in some embodiments,electrochemical systems can be undercooled further below the freezingpoint of the liquid electrolyte before crystallization occurs.

In some embodiments, the electrolyte includes a lithium-containing salt.In some embodiments, a reduction in temperature can result incrystallization of the lithium-containing salt. In some conventionalsystems, the presence of a rough surface increases the amount of nucleisites that encourage the crystallization of the salts. In someembodiments, LISs do not allow these nuclei sites to form and thusprevents crystallization of lithium-containing salts (and other similarelectrolyte components), which in turn extends the operating temperaturerange of the battery.

Material Considerations for Designing and Selecting LIS

Various criteria affect the stability of LISs in electrochemicalsystems. As discussed above, in some embodiments, electrochemicalsystems (or portions or surfaces thereof) come into contact with highlyviscous and/or yield stress fluids, which present particular challenges,as such fluids do not easily move along surfaces. In some embodiments,at least one of the criteria below, or a combination of differentcriteria below, or all the criteria below are considered and/oroptimized in selecting a lubricant to be used in an electrochemicalsystem.

Thermodynamic Stability.

In some embodiments, it is very important that the electrolyte,electrode, or electrochemical fuel does not displace the lubricant fromthe textured surface. In some embodiments, in order to form a LIS, alubricant may be impregnated within surface textures and/or featuresspontaneously. The requirements for this process are outlined in FIG. 1C(e.g., in some embodiments, the system is designed such that eitherstate W2 or W3 is achieved). In the design of electrochemical systemsdiscussed herein, when referring to the table in FIG. 1C, the waterphase (w) is the flow electrode. The surface tension of the lubricant,the surface tension of the textured surface, and the roughness of thetextured surface may determine the stability of the lubricant in thetextured surface. Various parameters affecting stability of thelubricant are discussed, for example, in International ApplicationPublication No. WO 2014/078867, filed on Nov. 19, 2013. In someembodiments, a combination of the following features may be desired: alow surface tension lubricant (e.g., lower than about 50 mN/m), a lowsurface tension solid (e.g., lower than about 50 mN/m), and a highroughness solid may be desired. In some embodiments, the solid featuresof the surface have a surface roughness >50 nm, >100 nm, or <1 μm. Insome embodiments, roughness of the surface provides or enables stableimpregnation of the lubricant therebetween or therewithin. In someembodiments, roughness of the surface provides or enables stableimpregnation of the lubricant therebetween or therewithin, such thatθ_(os(v), receding)<θ_(c) where θ_(c) is critical contact angle.

Immiscibility.

In some embodiments, the liquid phase(s) comprising the electrolyte,electrode, or electrochemical fuel are immiscible or substantiallyimmiscible with the lubricant so that a well-definedlubricant/electrolyte interface is produced. In some embodiments,immiscibility also prevents the lubricant phase from contaminating theelectrochemically active phase(s). For example, in some embodiments,lithium sulfide flow batteries may use polar, aprotic solvents such asTEG-DME, diglyme, or dioxolane-dimethoxyethane (DOL-DME); in suchinstances, the lubricant is chosen such that it is immiscible with suchsolvents. In some embodiments, the electrolyte or electrode orelectrochemical fuel is aqueous in nature; in such instances, thelubricant is chosen such that it is immiscible with aqueous solutions orsuspensions.

In some embodiments, the choice of the lubricant (lubricating liquid) iscontingent upon the material properties of the electroactive phase. Insome embodiments, desirable traits of the lubricant with respect to theelectroactive phase include immiscibility or partial miscibility (<5% ofits weight), non-reactiveness, and/or a lower surface tension (than theelectroactive phase) (e.g., to form a stable system). In certainembodiments, a higher surface tension (than the electroactive phase) ispreferred. In certain embodiments, the partial miscibility of thelubricant with the electroactive phase results in a change of surfacetension of the electroactive phase such that the spreading coefficient,S, of the lubricant on the electroactive phase becomes negative andthereby the electroactive phase does not spread over the primary phase,where S is defined according the following Equation(S=γ_(wa)−γ_(oa)−γ_(ow)).

Some examples of such lubricants whose spreading coefficient changesupon partial miscibility and which can be used as lubricants withrespect to an electroactive phase include 1,1-diphenyl-ethane, benzene,ionic liquid (e.g., 1-butyl-3-methylimidazoliumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide), etc. In some embodiments, thelubricant is partially miscible with the electroactive phase and thepartial miscibility changes the spreading coefficient of the lubricanton the electroactive phase, such that the electroactive phase flowsalong the surface of the LIS without getting cloaked by the lubricant.

Electrochemical Stability.

In some embodiments, the lubricant itself, as well as mixtures of thelubricant and the working fluid of an electrochemical device, are stableover the electrochemical window of the device. Electrochemical devicesare typically designed to operate over a certain voltage on the basis ofthe activity and stability of the components within. For example, insome embodiments, a lithium sulfur battery may operate over a window ofabout 1.6 V to 2.2 V with respect to Li/Li⁺. In some embodiments, alithium ion battery may operate over a window of about 1.5V to 4.25V. Insome embodiments, the lubricant phase of the LIS, any mixtures producedupon combining the lubricant with the working fluids of theelectrochemical device, and any reaction products produced between thelubricant or texture material and all other components of theelectrochemical device (e.g., flow cell) are electrochemically stableover the operating voltage window. In some embodiments, immisciblefluids may have some mutual solubility. For example, although water andhexadecane are considered insoluble, about 100 ppm of hexadecanedissolves in water. In some embodiments, even trace levels, ifelectrochemically active, can disrupt the functioning of theelectrochemical system. In some embodiments, “side reactions” thatresult in parasitic current flow are such that they have negligiblecurrent over the voltage window compared to the desired electrochemicalreactions (which is achieved by, e.g., proper selection of thelubricant). In some embodiments, the lubricant is selected such that itdoes not contribute a side reaction rate in excess of about 1% of thetotal reaction rate, the two rates being measured on the basis of thecurrent produced, to be considered electrochemically active.

Tuning the Transport Properties of LISs

In some embodiments, a LIS structure comprising a substrate, solidtextures/features and a lubricant is applied to internal surfaces (orpart(s) or portion(s) thereof) of an electrochemical device. Forexample, in some embodiments, a LIS is incorporated in the walls of aflow battery or fuel cell tank, flow battery or fuel cell stack, pipes,channels, cavities, manifolds, valves, seals, pumps or any otherinternal surface(s).

In some embodiments, a LIS is designed and selected to provide desiredelectronic or ionic or diffusional transport properties (or anycombination of these properties, as needed). In some embodiments, a LISis insulating, electronically conductive, ionically conductive, mixedionically and electronically-conducting, semi-conducting, a diffusionbarrier, and/or a diffusion-enhancing medium (or a combination thereof).In some embodiments, transport properties of the LIS are tuned accordingto the needs of a particular component of an electrochemical device.

In some embodiments, an electronically conductive LIS may be used on thecurrent collectors of a stationary battery, flow battery, or fuel cell.In some embodiments, the electronically conductive LIS is made by usingan electronically conductive material (e.g., conductive particles suchas carbon black) as the solid texture material, and/or by using anelectronically conductive suspension or polymer solution as thelubricant.

In some embodiments, an ionically conductive LIS is used on a separatorstructure or other cell parts by incorporating a solid ionic conductor(e.g., an ion-conducting glass, crystal, or polymer) as a texturedsurface, or by using an ionically conductive liquid (e.g., anelectrolyte) as the lubricant phase.

In some embodiments, an insulating LIS is used to prevent unwantedprecipitation of electrochemical reaction products.

In some embodiments, a diffusion barrier LIS may be used to preventcorrosion of system components. In some embodiments, the electrochemicaldevice is a flow battery. In some embodiments, the flow battery includesorganic solvent(s) in the flowable electrode. In conventional systems,organic solvent(s) can corrode stainless steel tanks or pipes (or othersystem components). Similarly, in conventional systems, organic liquids(e.g., acids) in flow batteries can also corrode the stainless steeltanks or pipes (or other system components). In addition, inconventional systems such as pouch cells, the organic solvent used inliquid electrolyte can corrode the materials that are used to seal thecell. In some embodiments, the use of a diffusion barrier LIS can beused to inhibit/prevent corrosion of system components (e.g., caused byorganic solvents, acids, etc.).

Selectively Lubricated Surfaces

In some embodiments, an electrochemical device includes at least onesurface within the device that has slipperiness and at least one surfacethat does not have slipperiness. Some embodiments discussed hereinrelate to methods for producing selectively lubricated surfaces (e.g.,where at least a portion of the surface has slipperiness and at least aportion of the surface does not have slipperiness) on electrochemicaldevices (e.g., on internal surfaces thereof). In some embodiments, it isdesirable to have surfaces that are lubricated on certainportions/surfaces of the device and to avoid lubrication or to have alesser degree of lubrication on other surfaces within the sameelectrochemical device.

In some embodiments, it is desirable to have selectively lubricatedsurfaces for electrochemical cells. In some embodiments, theelectrochemical cells for which it is desirable to have selectivelylubricated surfaces include gravity-induced flow cell (GIF cell)devices. In some embodiments, GIF cell devices are designed such thatthe walls of the flow cell are slippery (e.g., include a LIS) but thecurrent collectors are not slippery (e.g., do not include a LIS), inorder to maintain a low resistance to electronic charge transfer and/ora surface having a high exchange current density.

In some embodiments, a silicone oil lubricant (10 cSt oil) is designedsuch that it does not spread from a textured LIS surface and does notinfiltrate a porous polymer separator of a battery (which couldpotentially prevent ion transport across the membrane). In someembodiments, a lubricant is selected such that it does not spread from atextured LIS surface and does not coat the metal current collectors.

In some embodiments, when a liquid droplet is placed on a smooth surfaceof a certain chemistry, the droplet makes a contact angle θ. When thecontact angle is zero, the liquid spreads on the surface. In someembodiments, even if a contact angle of liquid is greater than zero(e.g., non-spreading on the flat surface), the liquid may spread over asurface that is not smooth. This is referred to as hemi-wicking.

A liquid may hemi-wick across a surface when its contact angle on achemically identical smooth surface θ is less than critical contactangle, θ_(c)=cos⁻¹ [(1−ϕ)/(r−ϕ)]. Here, and as discussed above, ϕ is thefraction of the projected area of the textured surface that is occupiedby a solid (the solid fraction) and r is the ratio of total surface areaof the textured surface to its projected area. For example, in someembodiments, surfaces non-wetting to particular liquids have low surfaceenergy and are sufficiently flat. In some embodiments, surfaces in anelectrochemical device that are desirable to be maintained free oflubricant have a contact angle greater than or equal to the criticalcontact angle θ_(c).

In some embodiments, the lubricant film encapsulating the texture isstable only if it wets the texture completely (θ=0), otherwise portionsof the textures dewet and emerge from the lubricant film. In someembodiments, complete encapsulation of the texture is desirable in orderto eliminate pinning. In some embodiments, texture geometry andhierarchical features can be exploited to reduce the emergent areas andachieve roll-off angles close to those obtained with fully wettinglubricants. In some embodiments, additional parameters, such as dropletand texture size, as well as the substrate tilt angle, may be modeled toachieve desired droplet (and/or other substance) movement (e.g.,rolling) properties and/or to deliver optimal non-wetting properties.

Electrochemical Devices

In some embodiments, the electrochemical device is a flow battery (orredox flow battery).

An exemplary redox flow energy storage device is illustrated in FIG. 10.Redox flow energy storage device may include a positive electrodecurrent collector 1010 and a negative electrode current collector 1020,separated by an ion permeable separator 1030. Current collectors 1010,1020 may be in the form of a thin sheet and are spaced apart fromseparator 1030. In some embodiments, the current collector 1010 (or apart or portion thereof) includes or is coated with a LIS, as discussedabove. In some embodiments, the current collector 1020 (or a part orportion thereof) includes or is coated with a LIS, as discussed above.Positive electrode current collector 1010 and ion permeable separator1030 define an area, 1015, herein after referred to as the “positiveelectroactive zone” that accommodates the positive flowable electrodeactive material 1040. In some embodiments, the ion permeable separator1030 includes or is coated with a LIS (e.g., on either side or on bothsides of the ion permeable separator 1030). In some embodiments, a LISis incorporated into the ion permeable separator 1030. In someembodiments, a LIS is incorporated into the ion permeable separator 1030(e.g., wherein the ion permeable separator 1030 is an ion selectivemembrane), wherein the lubricating liquid is ionically conductive.Negative electrode current collector 1020 and ion permeable separator1030 define an area, 1025, herein after referred to as the “negativeelectroactive zone” that accommodates the negative flowable electrodeactive material 1050. The electrode-active materials can be flowableredox compositions and can be transported to and from the electroactivezone at which the electrochemical reaction occurs. The flowable redoxcomposition can include a semi-solid or a condensed liquid ion-storingelectroactive material, and optionally a fluid for supporting orsuspending the solid or condensed ion-storing liquid electrolyte. Asused herein, semi-solid refers to a mixture of liquid and solid phases,such as a slurry, particle suspension, colloidal suspension, emulsion,or micelle. In some embodiments, the emulsion or micelle in a semi-solidincludes a solid in at least one of the liquid-containing phases. Asused herein, condensed liquid or condensed ion-storing liquid refers toa liquid that is not merely a solvent as it is in the case of an aqueousflow cell catholyte or anolyte, but rather that the liquid is itselfredox-active. The liquid form can also be diluted by or mixed withanother, non-redox-active liquid that is a diluent or solvent, includingmixing with such a diluents to form a lower-melting liquid phase,emulsion or micelles including the ion-storing liquid.

The positive electrode flowable material 1040 can enter the positiveelectroactive zone 1015 in the direction indicated by arrow 1060.Positive electrode material 1040 can flow through the electroactive zoneand exit at the upper location of the electroactive zone in thedirection indicated by arrow 1065. Similarly, the negative electrodeflowable material 1050 can enter the negative electroactive zone 1025 inthe direction indicated by arrow 1070. Negative electrode material 1050can flow through the electroactive zone and exits at the upper locationof the electroactive zone in the direction indicated by arrow 1075. Thedirection of flow can be reversed, for example, when alternating betweencharging and discharging operations. It is noted that the illustrationof the direction of flow is arbitrary in FIG. 10. Flow can be continuousor intermittent. In some embodiments, the positive and negative redoxflow materials are stored in a storage zone or tank (not shown) prior touse. In some embodiments, the flowable redox electrode materials can becontinuously renewed and replaced from the storage zones, thusgenerating an energy storage system with very high energy capacity. Insome embodiments, a transporting device is used to introduce positiveand negative ion-storing electroactive materials into the positive andnegative electroactive zones, respectively. In some embodiments, atransporting device is used to transport depleted positive and negativeion-storing electroactive materials out of the positive and negativeelectroactive zones, respectively, and into storage tanks for depletedelectroactive materials for recharging. In some embodiments, thetransporting device can be a pump or any other conventional device forfluid transport. In some specific embodiments, the transporting deviceis a peristaltic pump.

During operation, the positive and negative electroactive materials canundergo reduction and oxidation. Ions 1090 can move across ion permeablemembrane 1030 and electrons can flow through an external circuit 1080 togenerate current. In a typical flow battery, the redox-active ions orion complexes undergo oxidation or reduction when they are in closeproximity to or in contact with a current collector that typically doesnot itself undergo redox activity. Such a current collector may be madeof carbon or nonreactive metal, for example. Thus, the reaction rate ofthe redox active species can be determined by the rate with which thespecies are brought close enough to the current collector to be inelectrical communication, as well as the rate of the redox reaction onceit is in electrical communication with the current collector. In someinstances, the transport of ions across the ionically conductingmembrane may rate-limit the cell reaction. Thus the rate of charge ordischarge of the flow battery, or the power to energy ratio, may berelatively low. The number of battery cells or total area of theseparators or electroactive zones and composition and flow rates of theflowable redox compositions can be varied to provide sufficient powerfor any given application.

An exemplary redox flow cell for a lithium battery (e.g., semi-solidlithium redox flow battery) is shown in FIG. 11. In this example, themembrane 1110 can be a microporous membrane such as a polymer separatorfilm (e.g., Celgard™ 2400) that prevents cathode particles 1120 andanode particles 1130 from crossing the membrane, or can be a solidnonporous film of a lithium ion conductor. The negative and positiveelectrode current collectors 1140, 1150 can be made of any suitablematerials and can be made of the same materials, or of differentmaterials. In some embodiments, the negative and positive electrodecurrent collectors are made of copper and aluminum, respectively. Insome embodiments, the negative electrode composition includes a graphiteor hard carbon suspension. In some embodiments, the positive electrodecomposition includes LiCoO₂ or LiFePO₄ as the redox active component. Insome embodiments, carbon particulates are optionally added to thecathode or anode suspensions to improve the electronic conductivity ofthe suspensions. In some embodiments, the solvent in which the positiveand negative active material particles are suspended is an alkylcarbonate mixture and includes a dissolved lithium salt such as LiPF₆.

In some embodiments, the current collector 1140 (or a part or portionthereof) includes or is coated with a LIS, as discussed above. In someembodiments, the current collector 1150 (or a part or portion thereof)includes or is coated with a LIS, as discussed above. In someembodiments, the membrane 1110 includes or is coated with a LIS (e.g.,on either side or on both sides of the membrane 1110). In someembodiments, a LIS is incorporated into the membrane 1110. In someembodiments, a LIS is incorporated into the membrane 1110 (e.g., whereinthe membrane 1110 is an ion selective membrane), wherein the lubricatingliquid is ionically conductive.

In some embodiments, the positive electrode composition is stored inpositive electrode storage tank 1160, and is pumped into theelectroactive zone using pump 1165. In some embodiments, the negativeelectrode composition is stored in negative electrode storage tank 1170,and is pumped into the electroactive zone using pump 1175. In someembodiments, at least a portion (or all) of the interior surface of atleast one storage tank 1160 and/or 1170 is coated with or includes aLIS. In some embodiments, the interior walls of at least one storagetank 1160 and/or 1170 are coated with or include a LIS. In someembodiments, piping 1105, 1106, 1107, and 1108 connects the tanks 1160and 1170 with the electroactive zones. In some embodiments, at least aportion of interior surface of at least one pipe 1105, 1106, 1107, and1108 is coated with or includes a LIS. In some embodiments, the interiorsurface of all pipes 1105, 1106, 1107, and 1108 is coated with orincludes a LIS.

In some embodiments, at least one of the positive electrode and thenegative electrode includes a semi-solid or condensed liquid ion-storingredox composition. In some embodiments, the semi-solid or condensedliquid ion-storing redox composition includes a conductive additive. Insome embodiments, the conductive additive is selected from the groupconsisting of metal carbides, metal nitrides, carbon black, graphiticcarbon powder, carbon fibers, carbon microfibers, vapor-grown carbonfibers (VGCF), fullerenes, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), multiwall carbonnanotubes (MWNTs), single wall carbon nanotubes (SWNTs), graphenesheets, and materials comprising fullerenic fragments that are notpredominantly a closed shell or tube of the graphene sheet, and anycombination or mixture thereof.

In some embodiments, the condensed liquid ion-storing redox compositionhas the capability to take up or release ions. In some embodiments, thecondensed liquid ion-storing redox composition remains substantiallyinsoluble during operation of the energy storage device. In someembodiments, the semi-solid or condensed liquid ion-storing redoxcomposition forms a continuously electronically conductive networkpercolative pathway to the negative current collector and/or thepositive current collector. In some embodiments, the positive electrodeand the negative electrode include a semi-solid or condensed liquidion-storing redox composition.

In some embodiments, the ion storage compound stores at least one oflithium, sodium, or hydrogen (or a combination thereof).

In some embodiments, the volume percentage of the ion-storing solidphase is between 5% and 70%. In some embodiments, the volume percentageof the total solids including the conductive additive is between 10% and75%. In some embodiments, the volume percentage of the ion-storing solidphase is between 5% and 70% and the volume percentage of the totalsolids including the conductive additive is between 10% and 75%.

Aqueous Batteries:

In some embodiments, the electrochemical device is an aqueouselectrolyte battery, for example as shown in FIG. 13. In someembodiments, the aqueous battery includes pouch cell material, twocurrent collectors, two electrodes, two aqueous electrolytes, and aseparator, arranged as shown in FIG. 13. In some embodiments, theaqueous electrolyte battery is a stationary-electrode battery or a flowbattery. In some embodiments, aqueous batteries include an electrolyteor electrode or electrochemical fuel that is water-based; in suchinstances, the lubricant is chosen such that it is immiscible withaqueous solutions or suspensions. In some embodiments, one or moreinterior surfaces of said aqueous battery, including the surfaces ofcomponents such as current collectors, separators, flow channels, or theinterior walls of the battery housing, include an LIS in order to serveone or more of the earlier described functions of the LIS. In someembodiments, a LIS can be applied to the separator (e.g., on either orboth sides of the separator shown in FIG. 13). In some embodiments, aLIS can be applied on the inside of the pouch cell material (e.g., pouchcell material shown in FIG. 13) that is in contact with the cellmaterial. In some embodiments, the a LIS can be applied on any surfacesof the current collector (e.g., surfaces of the current collector incontact with the electrode as shown in FIG. 13).

Non-Aqueous Batteries:

In some embodiments, the electrochemical device is a non-aqueousbattery, for example, as shown in FIG. 13. In some embodiments, thenon-aqueous battery includes pouch cell material, two currentcollectors, two electrodes, two aqueous electrolytes, and a separator,arranged as shown in FIG. 13. In some embodiments, the non-aqueousbattery is a stationary-electrode battery or a flow battery. In someembodiments, non-aqueous batteries include an electrolyte or electrodeor electrochemical fuel that is non-aqueous in composition; in suchinstances, the lubricant is chosen such that it is immiscible withnon-aqueous solutions or suspensions. In some embodiments, one or moreinterior surfaces of said non-aqueous battery, including the surfaces ofcomponents such as current collectors, separators, flow channels, or theinterior walls of the battery housing, include a LIS in order to serveone or more of the earlier described functions of the LIS. In someembodiments, a LIS can be applied to the separator (e.g., on either orboth sides of the separator shown in FIG. 13). In some embodiments, aLIS can be applied on the inside of the pouch cell material (e.g., pouchcell material shown in FIG. 13) that is in contact with the cellmaterial. In some embodiments, the a LIS can be applied on any surfacesof the current collector (e.g., surfaces of the current collector incontact with the electrode as shown in FIG. 13.

Metal-Air Batteries:

In some embodiments, the electrochemical device is a metal-air batterycomprising a metal negative electrode and an air positive electrode, asshown, for example, in FIG. 14. In some embodiments, a metal-air batteryincludes pouch cell material, a current collector, Li metal layer, anelectrolyte (e.g., organic electrolyte), a separator, an electrode, anda porous current collector, arranged as shown, for example, in FIG. 14.In some embodiments, said metal-air battery includes an aqueous ornon-aqueous electrolyte in contact with one or both electrodes. In someembodiments, during discharge of said metal air battery, an oxide,peroxide, hydroxide, or other salt of the metal is formed at thepositive electrode. In some embodiments, one or more interior surfacesof said metal-air battery including the surfaces of current collectors,separators, or interior walls of the battery housing are coated with LISin order to serve one or more of the earlier described functions of theLIS. In some embodiments, a LIS can be applied to any surface of theseparator, e.g., either side of the separator, as shown, for example inFIG. 14. In some embodiments, a LIS is applied to the side of theseparator that is in contact with the electrolyte, as shown, forexample, in FIG. 14. In some embodiments, a LIS is applied to the sideof the separator that is in contact with the electrode, as shown, forexample, in FIG. 14. In some embodiments, a LIS is applied to the insideof the pouch cell material that is in contact with the cell materials.In some embodiments, a LIS is applied to the current collector. In someembodiments, a LIS is applied to or is part of the porous currentcollector.

Fuel Cells:

In some embodiments, the electrochemical device is a fuel cell, in whichthe LIS may serve to control the behavior of a liquid component, such asthe phosphoric acid electrolyte layer in a phosphoric acid fuel cell, orthe condensation/nucleation of a liquid phase from a vapor phase on oneor more exposed component surfaces, such as water on the exhaust side ofa hydrogen fuel cell. An exemplary fuel cell is shown in FIG. 15. Insome embodiments, a fuel cell includes a housing, an anode, a cathode,and an electrolyte in contact with both the anode and the cathode, asshown for example in FIG. 15. In some embodiments, a LIS can be appliedto the surface of the cathode material. In some embodiments, a LIS isapplied to the portion of the cathode material that is in contact withthe electrolyte, as shown in FIG. 15. In some embodiments, a LIS isapplied in the inside of the housing material that is in contact withwater (e.g., as shown in FIG. 15) or that is in contact with anotherliquid or fluid,

Electrolytic Capacitors:

An exemplary electrolytic capacitor is shown in FIG. 16. In someembodiments, an electrolytic capacitor includes housing material, anelectrolyte (e.g., cathode), an oxide layer, and anode (e.g.,encapsulated by the oxide layer), arranged as shown, for example in FIG.16. In some embodiments, a LIS is used to coat one or more internalsurfaces of an electrolytic capacitor, including the current collectors,separator, or internal surfaces of the capacitor housing. In someembodiments, a LIS can be applied or coated to the inside of the housingmaterial that is in contact with the electrolyte (e.g., cathode). Saidelectrolytic capacitor may utilize an aqueous electrolyte, in which casethe LIS may contain a liquid that is immiscible with the aqueouselectrolyte, or the electrolytic capacitor may utilize a non-aqueouselectrolyte, in which case the LIS may contain a liquid immiscible withthe non-aqueous electrolyte.

Flow Capacitors:

In some embodiments, the flow capacitor is an electrochemical flowcapacitor disclosed, for example, in PCT/US2012/024960, filed on Feb.14, 2012, the disclosure of which is incorporated by reference herein inits entirety. An exemplary flow capacitor is shown in FIG. 17. In someembodiments, a flow capacitor includes two current collectors aseparator, one or more pumps for pumping charged or discharged slurry(e.g., 4 pumps as shown in FIG. 17), one or more tanks (e.g., 4 tankshousing charged or discharged slurry as shown in FIG. 17), pipingconnecting the tanks to the positive or negative half cells. In someembodiments, at least one surface of at least one current collector(positive current collector and/or negative current collector) is coatedwith or includes a LIS. In some embodiments, uncharged slurry is storedin uncharged slurry storage tanks. In some embodiments, charged slurryis stored in charged slurry storage tanks. In some embodiments, at leasta part or portion of the interior surface of at least one of theuncharged slurry and/or the charged slurry storage tanks includes or iscoated with a LIS. In some embodiments, uncharged slurry is pumped fromthe tanks to the positive and negative half cells via uncharged slurrypipes. In some embodiments, charged slurry is pumped into the chargedslurry tanks via charged slurry pipes. In some embodiments, at least apart or portion of the interior surface of the uncharged slurry and/orthe charged slurry pipes is coated with or includes a LIS. In someembodiments, a separator includes or is coated with a LIS (e.g., eitheror both sides (or any portion thereof) of the separator shown in FIG.17).

EXPERIMENTAL EXAMPLES Example 1: LIS for a Lithium Polysulfide FlowBattery

This example demonstrates a lithium polysulfide flow battery with alubricant-impregnated surface (LIS).

Lithium polysulfide solutions comprising Li_(x)S_(y) compounds dissolvedin non-aqueous solvents form the basis for flowable catholytes for usein stationary or flow batteries. A representative electrolyte solutionwas prepared using TEG-DME (≥99%, Sigma-Aldrich), 0.5 M LiTFSI salt(≥99.95%, Sigma-Aldrich), and 1 wt % LiNO₃ (ReagentPlus® grade,Sigma-Aldrich). The solution did not include the lithium polysulfidesince in electrochemical tests of the lubricant and solvent system, itis necessary to evaluate side reaction currents without interferencefrom the electrochemical couple. To design and select materials for theLIS, several candidate lubricants of various compositions wereconsidered, as listed in Table 1 below.

Table 1 below illustrates compatibility of several candidate lubricantswith the electrolyte solvent TEG-DME. Immiscibility was determined byvigorously shaking a 50 wt % lubricant, 50 wt % TEG-DME mixtures andobserving the respective phase volumes after four hours. Thermodynamicstability (e.g., spreading coefficient) is calculated from the lubricantsurface tension and estimated surface tension of the electrolyte solvent(TEG-DME). Positive values are interpreted as thermodynamically stableand negative values are interpreted as being thermodynamically unstable.

TABLE 1 Thermodynamic stability Surface tension (Spreading CoefficientLubricant Type (mN/m) Immiscibility Estimation) perfluorodecalinfluorinated oil 19 immiscible 5 10 cSt silicone silicone oil 20 slightlymiscible 4 oil EMI-IM ionic liquid 42 completely −18 miscible BMI-IMionic liquid 34 completely −10 miscible KRYTOX ® fluorinated ether 17immiscible 7 1506 FOMBLIN ® fluorinated ether 20 immiscible 4 EthylOleate fatty acid ester 31 completely −7 miscible FC-70 fluorinated 18immiscible 6 ether/alkane

FIG. 1C illustrates schematics of wetting configurations outside andunderneath an aqueous drop (column 2). The total interface energies perunit area (column 3) are calculated for each configuration by summingthe individual interfacial energy contributions. Equivalent requirementsfor stability of each configuration are provided in column 4.

The thermodynamically stability of each lubricant was calculated usingthe equations provided in FIG. 1C. A positive numerical value(S_(ow(w))) predicts a lubricant to be thermodynamically stable for theelectrolyte solvent TEG-DME. Values for the surface tension of TEG-DMEare not readily available, but are estimated to be close to that ofdimethoxyethane, which has similar chemical composition, and has asurface tension of 24 mN/m. Surface roughness effects are excluded fromthe calculation but can be incorporated for a more precise prediction.

The miscibility of the candidate lubricants with TEG-DME was evaluated.Immiscibility was determined by vigorously shaking a 50 wt % lubricant,50 wt % TEG-DME mixtures and observing the respective phase volumesafter four hours. Only those lubricants that were at most slightlymiscible with TEG-DME, and in addition were thermodynamically stable,were considered for further evaluation. Accordingly, five of the eightcandidate lubricants in Table 1 were evaluated further:perfluorodecalin, 10 cSt silicone oil, KRYTOX® 1506, FOMBLIN®(fluorinated lubricant, perfluoropolyether vacuum oil), and FC-70.

Two types of electrochemical tests were carried out to evaluateelectrochemical stability in the voltage window of a lithium-sulfurbattery. In each test, cyclic voltammetry was conducted in order tomeasure the current in a lithium half-cell containing the fluid ofinterest. A Swagelok cell configuration was used, in which the positiveelectrode (cathode) was composed of carbon felt, the lubricant, and/orelectrolyte solvent (TEG-DME). The anode was lithium metal, and theseparator was a Tonen membrane. In one test, the lubricant alone wasused as the sole liquid phase in the cell. In the second test, mixturesof the lubricant and the electrolyte solution in the volumetric ratio of3:1 (lubricant: electrolyte) were tested. In each case, evidence wassought for side reactions that produce current sufficiently high as tointerfere with the operation or long-term life of the cell. Voltage wasswept between 1.5V and 3.5V with respect to Li/Li⁺, at a sweep rate of10 mV/min.

FIGS. 6A-6F show the cyclic voltammetry test results for the differentlubricants. The electrolyte alone was used as a control, and evidencefor additional side reaction currents was sought. The vertical scale,current density, is not the same between the different plots in FIGS.6A-6F. FIG. 7 plots all of the curves from FIGS. 6A-6F together on thesame scale.

FC-70, FOMBLIN® and perfluorodecalin all show substantial currentdensity exceeding −0.5 mA/cm² in the voltage window tested, and theselubricants were therefore considered less desirable for someapplications (although potentially still usable) compared to thesilicone oil and KRYTOX® 1506.

The second test was then conducted in which the liquid phase was amixture of the lubricant and the electrolyte. As the cyclic voltammogramin FIG. 8 illustrates, the currents for 10 cSt silicone oil and forperfluorodecalin are much lower over the measured voltage range than theother three evaluated lubricants. The inset figure in FIG. 8 shows anexpanded view of the data for perfluorodecalin and silicone oil.Silicone oil was the most inert, having immeasurably low current withinthe voltage window.

Based on these tests, the 10 cSt silicone oil was selected forincorporation into a LIS.

To construct the LIS, a porous commercially available TEFLON® membrane(pore size of 0.2 μm, Sterlitech) was immersed in a bath of 10 cStsilicone oil. To create a thermodynamically stable film, the dip-coatingwithdrawal velocity may be below a critical speedV_(crit)=0.121μ₀γ/(δ/l_(c))^(3/2) where, μ₀ is the viscosity of thelubricant, γ is the surface tension, l_(c) is the capillary length, andδ is the depth of the pores of the membrane. Accordingly, the membranewas withdrawn from the silicone oil bath at V=1 mm/s.

FIG. 4 illustrates the effectiveness of the LIS in producing asuper-slippery surface for a lithium polysulfide suspension (0.75 vol %carbon black suspended in TEG-DME solution that comprises of 0.5 Mlithium LiTFSI, 1 wt % of LiNO₃ and 2.5 M of sulfur in the form ofLi₂S₈). At an incline from the horizontal of 40°, a droplet of thesuspension did not flow on an untreated PTFE (TEFLON®) surface. At anincline of 70° from the horizontal, the droplet exhibited contact linepinning, producing an elongated droplet. However, on the silicone oilimpregnated structure, the droplet slipped at 40°, and exhibited nocontact line pinning, as is seen by the undeformed circular shape of thedroplet.

Example 2: Surfaces Designed to be Selectively Wet by the Lubricant

This example demonstrates exemplary LISs for GIF cells. In GIF cells,lubricants should be prevented from spreading out from the LIS and overa current collector, or infiltrating the porous separator membrane.

In this example, surfaces designed to be selective to wetting by thelubricant phase of a LIS, silicone oil (10 cSt), were demonstrated. Adroplet of silicone oil was placed on certain surfaces to observewhether the silicone oil spreads.

FIGS. 9A-9E illustrate results showing that surface functionalizationcan be used to produce surfaces that are wetting and non-wetting tosilicone oil. Several surface chemistries are functionalized onto flatpolydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) were examined. Un-functionalized PDMS andPDMS functionalized with trichloro(1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorooctyl)silanewere found to prevent silicone oil from spreading (e.g., wetting) inair, as shown in FIGS. 9B and 9C. On the other hand, PDMS functionalizedwith n-octadecyltrichlorosilane allowed silicone oil to spread in air,as shown in FIG. 9A.

In addition to experiments in air, the same surfaces were examined fortheir wetting behavior in tetraethylene glycol dimethyl ether (TEG-DME),a typical electrolyte solvent for Li polysulfide flow batteries. Thesurfaces were immersed in TEG-DME before a droplet of silicone oil wasdropped onto each surface to observe the wetting behavior. All thetested surfaces were not wetted by the silicone oil, as shown in FIGS.9D and 9E.

In some embodiments, the lubricant can be designed to either wet or notwet a surface. In some embodiments, the lubricant can be designed toeither wet or not wet a surface when exposed to a gaseous atmosphere. Insome embodiments, the lubricant can be designed to either wet or not weta surface when the surface (and lubricant) is covered by a fluid, suchas an internal surface in a liquid electrolyte filled device.

Most electrochemical devices are assembled in air or inert gasenvironment before being filled with a liquid electrolyte, when it isdesirable to prevent the lubricant from wetting specific surfaces,non-wetting behavior in both air and electrolyte is desired to preventthe lubricant from spreading out from the LIS. In this example,un-functionalized PDMS and PDMS functionalized withtrichloro(1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorooctyl)silane are suitable candidates forcreating non-wetting surfaces in electrochemical devices using TEG-DMEas the electrolyte solvent. In one configuration, a strip of non-wettingsurface may be included on either side of the metal current collector inthe flow channel to prevent the lubricant in the LIS regions fromcrossing over to the current collector surfaces.

EQUIVALENTS

While the invention has been particularly shown and described withreference to specific preferred embodiments, it should be understood bythose skilled in the art that various changes in form and detail may bemade therein without departing from the spirit and scope of theinvention as defined by the appended claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. An electrochemical device comprising: an interiorsurface, at least a first portion of which comprises a plurality ofsolid features disposed thereon, the plurality of solid featuresdefining a plurality of regions therebetween, and a liquid lubricantdisposed in the plurality of regions, the plurality of solid featuresretaining the liquid lubricant in the plurality of regions duringoperation of the device, thereby providing a liquid lubricantimpregnated surface; and an electroactive phase in contact with at leastthe first portion of the interior surface, wherein the liquid lubricantimpregnated surface introduces a slip at the surface (e.g., where aratio of slip velocity against mean velocity (u_(w)/ū) is greater than0.9) when the electroactive phase flows along the surface (e.g., therebyproviding low shear rate and high slip ratio (u_(w)/ū) at the surfaceand promoting plug flow of the electroactive phase within the device).2. The electrochemical device of claim 1, wherein the electroactivephase is a non-Newtonian fluid.
 3. The electrochemical device of claim2, wherein the electroactive phase is a yield-stress fluid.
 4. Theelectrochemical device of claim 3, wherein the electroactive phase has ayield-stress between 1 Pa to 2 kPa.
 5. The electrochemical device of anyone of the preceding claims, wherein the electroactive phase flows alongthe first portion of the interior surface such that the first portion issubstantially free from residue left by the electroactive phase alongits path of flow (e.g., less than 10%, less than 5%, less than 1%, lessthan 0.5%, less than 0.1% of residue of electroactive phase remaining).6. The electrochemical device of any one of the preceding claims,wherein the first portion enables flowing of the electroactive phasesolely due to gravity.
 7. The electrochemical device of any one of thepreceding claims, wherein the electroactive phase comprises at least onesolvent and at least one electrolyte.
 8. The electrochemical device ofclaim 7, wherein the electrolyte is a lithium-containing salt (e.g.,LiPF₆, LiBF₄, LiTFSI, LiFSI, LiClO₄, LiAlCl₄, LiGaCl₄) in an organicsolvent or combination of solvents or in an aqueous-based solvent orcombination of solvents; or wherein the electrolyte is selected from thegroup consisting of iron/chromium, bromine/polysulfide, vanadium,zinc/bromine, lithium polysulfide, vanadium,tris(bipyridine)nickel(II)tetrafluoroborate/tris(bipyridine)iron(II)tetrafluoroborate(Ni(Bpy)₃(BF₄)₂/Fe(BPy)₃(BF₄)₂), tris(bipyridine)ruthenium(II)((Ru(bpy)₃]²⁺), and zinc/cerium.
 9. The electrochemical device of claim7, wherein the solvent is selected from the list consisting of water,alkyl carbonates (e.g., ethylene carbonate, diethyl carbonate, dimethylcarbonate, propylene carbonate), alkyl phosphonates, phosphites,acetonitrile, propylene carbonate, glyme, diglyme, triglyme, tetraglyme,polyglyme, dioxolane (1,3-dioxolane), dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO),dichloromethane, ethylene carbonate, tetrahydrafuran (THF), methanesulfonic acid, dimethyl ether (DEM), tetraethylene glycol dimethyl ether(TEG-DME) and dimethoxyethane, and any combination or derivativethereof.
 10. The electrochemical device of any one of the precedingclaims, wherein the electroactive phase further comprises at least oneflame-retardant additives (e.g., trimethlyphosphate (TMP)) and/or atleast one ion transport enhancer.
 11. The electrochemical device of anyone of the preceding claims, wherein the electroactive phase includes atleast one conductive additive selected from the group consisting of:metal carbides, metal nitrides, carbon black, graphitic carbon powder,carbon fibers, carbon microfibers, vapor-grown carbon fibers (VGCF),fullerenes, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWNTs),single wall carbon nanotubes (SWNTs), graphene sheets, and materialscomprising fullerenic fragments that are not predominantly a closedshell or tube of the graphene sheet, and any combination or mixturethereof.
 12. The electrochemical device claim 11, wherein the conductiveadditive is carbon black.
 13. The electrochemical device of claim 12,wherein the carbon black is present in the electroactive phase in anamount from between 0.25 vol % to 3 vol %.
 14. The electrochemicaldevice of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the liquid lubricantimpregnated surface promotes plug flow, wherein a ratio of slip velocityagainst mean velocity (u_(w)/ū) is greater than 0.9.
 15. Theelectrochemical device of any one of the preceding claims, wherein atleast one of the conditions or any combination of conditions (a) through(e) is satisfied: (a) wherein the solid features have an averagedimension in a range of up to 200 microns; (b) wherein the solidfeatures comprise particles; (c) wherein a ratio of an exposed surfacearea of the plurality of solid features to an exposed surface area ofthe liquid lubricant contained in the plurality of regions is less than0.5; (d) wherein the solid features comprise particles and wherein anaverage spacing between adjacent particles or clusters of particles isin a range of up to 200 microns; and (e) wherein the interior surface(without the plurality of solid features and the liquid lubricant) has afirst roll-off angle and wherein the plurality of solid features and theliquid lubricant collectively define a liquid-impregnated surface, theliquid-impregnated surface having a second roll-off angle, the secondroll-off angle being less than the first roll-off angle;
 16. Theelectrochemical device of claim 15, wherein the ratio of the exposedsurface area of the plurality of solid features to the exposed surfacearea of the liquid contained in the plurality of regions is less than0.3.
 17. The electrochemical device of claim 15, wherein the ratio ofthe exposed surface area of the plurality of solid features to theexposed surface area of the liquid contained in the plurality of regionsgreater than 0 and less than 0.2.
 18. The electrochemical device ofclaim 15, wherein the second roll-off angle is less than 2°.
 19. Theelectrochemical device of any one of the preceding claims, wherein theelectrochemical device is a member selected from the group consistingof: a battery (e.g., flow battery, aqueous battery, non-aqueous battery,metal-air battery), a fuel cell (e.g., gravity-induced flow cell), and acapacitor (e.g., electrolytic capacitor, flow capacitor).
 20. Theelectrochemical device of any one of claims 1-19, wherein the firstportion passively promotes at least one effect selected from the listconsisting of: (i) increases nucleation of insoluble materials (e.g., ofreacting material, e.g., insoluble lithium sulfide species) formedduring operation of the electrochemical device, (ii) increases growth ofinsoluble materials (e.g., of reacting material, e.g., insoluble lithiumsulfide species) formed during operation of the electrochemical device,(iii) increases precipitation of insoluble materials (e.g., of reactingmaterial, e.g., insoluble lithium sulfide species) formed duringoperation of the electrochemical device, (iv) increases segregation ofinsoluble materials (e.g., of reacting material, e.g., insoluble lithiumsulfide species) formed during operation of the electrochemical deviceat desired locations on the internal surface of the electrochemicaldevice.
 21. The electrochemical device of any one of claims 1-19,wherein the first portion passively promotes at least one effectselected from the list consisting of: (i) inhibits nucleation (e.g., ofscale or of reacting material, e.g., insoluble lithium sulfide species),(ii) decreases growth (e.g., of scale or reacting material, e.g.,insoluble lithium sulfide species), (iii) inhibits precipitation (e.g.,of reacting material, e.g., insoluble lithium sulfide species), (iv)decreases segregation (e.g., of scale or of reacting material, e.g.,insoluble lithium sulfide species) at undesired locations (e.g.,surfaces that are not electrically connected to the terminals of thebattery or are otherwise electrochemically inactive) on the internalsurface of the electrochemical device of insoluble materials formedduring operation of the electrochemical device.
 22. The electrochemicaldevice of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the first portionpassively extends an operating temperature range of the electrochemicaldevice (e.g., the electrochemical device may be operated at lowertemperatures, e.g., wherein the liquid-lubricant impregnated surfaceinhibits crystallization of electroactive phase components).
 23. Theelectrochemical device of any one of the preceding claims, wherein asecond portion (e.g., other than the first portion) of the internalsurface does not comprise the plurality of solid features disposedthereon.
 24. The electrochemical device of claim 23, wherein theinternal surface includes one or more first portions comprising theplurality of solid features disposed thereon and one or more secondportions not comprising the plurality of solid features disposedthereon.
 25. The electrochemical device of any one of the precedingclaims, wherein the first portion is electronically conductive.
 26. Theelectrochemical device of any one of the preceding claims, wherein theplurality of solid features comprise an electronically conductivematerial (e.g., nanoparticles suspended in a percolating network ofcarbon black in TEG-DME) and/or wherein the liquid lubricant comprisesan electronically conductive suspension or polymer solution (e.g., apercolating network of carbon black in a vacuum pump oil (e.g., KRYTOX®1506)).
 27. The electrochemical device of any one of claims 1-24,wherein the first portion is ionically conductive.
 28. Theelectrochemical device of claim 27, wherein the plurality of solidfeatures comprise an ion-conducting glass or polymer and wherein theliquid lubricant comprises an ionically conductive liquid (e.g., anelectrolyte).
 29. The electrochemical device of any one of the precedingclaims, wherein the liquid lubricant is electrochemically stable (e.g.,where an amount of side reactions due to the liquid lubricant is lessthan 5%, less than 3%, or less than 1% of total electrochemicalreactions).
 30. The electrochemical device of any one of the precedingclaims, wherein the liquid lubricant is thermodynamically stable (e.g.,wherein when surface tension of the liquid lubricant is subtracted fromsurface tension of an electrolyte solvent, the resulting value isgreater than zero).
 31. The electrochemical device of any one of thepreceding claims, wherein the liquid lubricant is immiscible orpartially miscible (e.g., less than 5%, less than 3%, less than 1%miscibility) with the electroactive phase.
 32. The electrochemicaldevice of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the plurality ofsolid features comprise at least one material selected from the groupconsisting of: hydrocarbons, (e.g., alkanes, and fluoropolymers (e.g.,polytetrafluoroethylene, trichloro(1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorooctyl)silane(TCS), octadecyltrichlorosilane (OTS),heptadecafluoro-1,1,2,2-tetrahydrodecyltrichlorosilane, fluoroPOSS)),ceramics (e.g., titanium carbide, titanium nitride, chromium nitride,boron nitride, chromium carbide, molybdenum carbide, titaniumcarbonitride, electroless nickel, zirconium nitride, fluorinated silicondioxide, titanium dioxide, tantalum oxide, tantalum nitride,diamond-like carbon, fluorinated diamond-like carbon, and/orcombinations thereof. Intermetallic compounds may include, for example,nickel aluminide, titanium aluminide, and/or combinations thereof),polymeric materials (e.g., polytetrafluoroethylene, fluoroacrylate,fluorourethane, fluorosilicone, fluorosilane, modified carbonate,chlorosilanes, silicone, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), and/orcombinations thereof), fluorinated materials, intermetallic compounds,composite materials.
 33. The electrochemical device of any one of thepreceding claims, wherein the liquid lubricant is selected from the listconsisting of oil-based lubricants (e.g., silicone oils, e.g., 10 cStsilicone oil, 1000 cSt silicone oil); ionic liquids (e.g., BMI-IM, e.g.,having ionic conductivity between 1 mS/cm to 10 mS/cm); hexadecane,vacuum pump oils (e.g., perfluorinated vacuum oils), fluorocarbons(e.g., perfluoro-tripentylamine), shear-thinning fluids,shear-thickening fluids, liquid polymers, dissolved polymers,viscoelastic fluids, liquid fluoroPOSS, hydrocarbon liquids,fluorocarbon liquids, and/or electronically conducting liquids (e.g.,lubricant suspended with electronically-conducting particles).
 34. Theelectroactive device of any one of the preceding claims, comprising: afirst volume comprising the electroactive phase (e.g., flow electrode,e.g., lithium polysulfide suspension); a second volume separated fromthe first volume by a separator (e.g., membrane, e.g. ion-permeablemembrane), wherein the separator spatially separates a positive currentcollector and a negative current collector, wherein the electroactivephase flows from the first volume to the second volume during operationof the electroactive device.
 35. The electroactive device of claim 34,wherein the separator is coated with or comprises a liquid-lubricantimpregnated surface.
 36. The electroactive phase of claim 34 or 35,wherein the first portion is disposed at an interior surface of thefirst volume (e.g., the liquid lubricant impregnated surface is disposedat the interior surface of the first volume).
 37. An electroactivedevice, comprising: a positive electrode current collector; a negativeelectrode current collector; and an ion-permeable membrane separatingthe positive current collector and the negative current collector; apositive electrode disposed between the positive electrode currentcollector and the ion-permeable membrane, the positive electrode currentcollector and the ion-permeable membrane defining a positiveelectroactive zone accommodating the positive electrode; and a negativeelectrode disposed between the negative electrode current collector andthe ion-permeable membrane; the negative electrode current collector andthe ion-permeable membrane defining a negative electroactive zoneaccommodating the negative electrode, wherein at least a portion of thepositive electrode current collector surface that comes into contactwith the positive electrode and/or at least a portion of the negativeelectrode current collector surface that comes into contact with thenegative electrode comprises a plurality of solid features disposedthereon, the plurality of solid features defining a plurality of regionstherebetween, and a liquid lubricant disposed in the plurality ofregions, the plurality of solid features retaining the liquid lubricantin the plurality of regions during operation of the device, therebyproviding a liquid lubricant impregnated surface, wherein the liquidlubricant impregnated surface introduces a slip at the surface (e.g.,where a ratio of slip velocity against mean velocity (u_(w)/ū) isgreater than 0.9) when the positive electrode or the negative electrodeflows along the surface and promotes plug flow of the positive electrodeor the negative electrode along the surface.
 38. The electroactivedevice of claim 37, further comprising a positive electrode storage tankand a negative electrode storage tank, wherein at least a portion of aninternal surface of the positive electrode storage tank and/or thenegative electrode storage tank comprises or is coated with a liquidlubricant impregnated surface.
 39. The electroactive device of claim 37,further comprising a positive electrode storage tank and a negativeelectrode storage tank, wherein the positive electrode storage tank andthe negative electrode storage tank are connected to the electroactivezone via piping, wherein at least a portion of an internal surface ofthe piping comprises or is coated with a liquid lubricant impregnatedsurface.
 40. The electroactive device of any one of claims 37-39,wherein the ion-permeable membrane comprises or is coated with aliquid-lubricant impregnated surface.